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hell
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The Condemned in Hell, fresco by Luca Signorelli, 1500–02; in the Chapel of San Brizio in the cathedral at Orvieto, Italy. Hades and Persephone in the underworld, interior of a red-figure cup, Greek, from Vulci, a town of the ancient Etruscans, c. 430 bce; in the British Museum. The Jaws of Hell Anastasis (Christ ascending from hell), apse fresco, 1320; in the Church of the Holy Saviour at the Monastery of the Chora (now the Kariye Museum), Istanbul. Hell, open right panel of the triptych Garden of Earthly Delights, oil on wood by Hieronymus Bosch, c. 1505–10; in the Prado, Madrid. Kannon, the bodhisattva of compassion; Takasaki, Japan.
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Modern attitudes

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Written by
Carol Zaleski
Professor of Religion, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts. Author of Otherworld Journeys: Accounts of Near-Death Experience in Medieval and Modern Times and The Life of the World to...
Carol Zaleski
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In the modern world, especially in the West, cultural shifts caused by the Enlightenment, 19th-century liberalism, and the psychotherapeutic culture of the late 20th century have contributed to a decline in the belief in an everlasting hell. Defenders of the belief regard this as a lamentable loss of nerve, of faith, and of moral seriousness. Hell may not be wished away, in their view, but must be conquered—by the merciful saviour who liberates the spirits from bondage, by the overpowering force of divine forgiveness, or by a final battle, the ultimate outcome of which, some hope, will be hell emptied, hell despoiled.

Carol Zaleski