money laundering

money laundering, the process by which criminals attempt to conceal the illicit origin and ownership of the proceeds of their unlawful activities. By means of money laundering, criminals attempt to transform the proceeds from their crimes into funds of an apparently legal origin. If successful, this process gives legitimacy to the proceeds, over which the criminals maintain control. Money laundering can be either a relatively simple process, undertaken at the local or national level, or a highly sophisticated one that exploits the international financial system and involves numerous financial intermediaries in a variety of jurisdictions. Money laundering is necessary for two reasons: first, the perpetrator must avoid being connected with the crimes that gave rise to the criminal proceeds (known as predicate offenses); second, the perpetrator must be able to use the proceeds as if they were of legal origin. In other words, money laundering disguises the criminal origin of financial assets so that they can be freely used.

Money laundering has three stages: placement, layering, and integration. In the placement stage, the launderer introduces the illegal profit into the financial system. In the layering stage, the launderer engages in a series of conversions or movements of the funds to distance them from their source. Finally, in the integration stage, the funds reenter the legitimate economy.

Mechanisms, methods, and instruments

In each stage of the process, the money launderer can employ a variety of mechanisms and monetary instruments to disguise the illicit nature of the criminal proceeds. Methods vary from the simple purchase of luxury items to more-sophisticated techniques involving the transfer of the money through a transnational network of banks and other financial institutions.

To dispose of the illicit proceeds, the launderer may make use of financial or nonfinancial mechanisms—that is, institutions that (knowingly or otherwise) participate in the laundering process. The most frequently used method is to work through banking institutions, mainly in the first stage of money laundering. Besides banks, other sectors are used, notably financial intermediation, because of the higher interests on the capital invested, leasing (the process of granting use or occupation of property during a specified period in exchange for a specified rent), and factoring (the practice of accepting accounts receivable as security for short-term loans). Other financial institutions, such as wire-transfer companies and exchange offices, are also often used to launder ill-gotten gains. Finally, launderers use the gold market, casinos, and gambling houses. The instruments used for money-laundering operations also vary widely. Besides cash, the instruments most frequently used are stocks, life-insurance policies, letters of credit, bank checks of all kinds, wire transfers, and precious metals.

In general terms, the laundering of small or episodic amounts of illicit proceeds requires a less-sophisticated process than that used to launder larger amounts. The simplest money-laundering methods are employed at the local or national level. One of the most common is the commingling of licit with illicit funds. The latter are disguised as part of a business turnover and may be claimed to be the proceeds of a legitimate business. This has the advantage of providing an almost immediate explanation for dirty money. Retail outlets such as restaurants and supermarkets, which handle a great deal of cash, are popular mechanisms for this purpose.

When extremely large amounts of dirty money must be laundered, as in the case of serious transnational fraud, the territorial limits of a jurisdiction may prove too narrow, especially if effective money-laundering legislation is in place and law-enforcement authorities have gained wide expertise in the investigation of economic crimes. In this case, criminals tend to direct their activities toward jurisdictions that offer anonymity, minimizing the risk of being identified and charged with the offense that generated the profits. They may therefore be attracted to a tax haven or an offshore jurisdiction, since these often have weak legislation providing a high level of anonymity, or to countries with money-laundering regulations only recently enacted or not yet fully implemented, and therefore ineffective.

In cases of transnational fraud, the first stage in the money-laundering process is often the physical movement of the money abroad. This distances the money from the location where the predicate offense was committed. To this end, currency smuggling (that is, the physical transfer of money) often proves effective. Owing to the absence of controls on the movement of capital across borders, it is still easy for criminals to ship illicit proceeds to a more-favourable neighbouring country. This they can do by using such sophisticated means as airplanes, ships, or automobiles or simply by hiding the money in luggage or secret compartments. Once abroad, the profits are introduced into the financial system. Launderers may decide to break large amounts of cash into smaller and less-noticeable sums, which are then deposited in a bank account. Alternatively, they may purchase monetary instruments (checks, money orders, etc.), which are then collected and deposited in accounts at another location.

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Once the money has been distanced from the place in which the predicate offense was committed, the layering stage begins. This involves a series of rapid and often sophisticated transactions intended to destroy the “paper trail” so that the law-enforcement authorities find it difficult to identify the criminals or trace the illicit origin of the money being laundered. Launderers may decide to channel unlawful funds through investment instruments, or they may simply perform wire transfers through a series of accounts at various banks around the globe.

In the final stage of the money-laundering process, integration, criminals seek to reclaim the money, often taking the money back into the country in which they operate and investing it in the legal economy. The real-estate sector, for instance, can be exploited for this purpose. Investing illicit proceeds in real estate proves useful in the final stage of the laundering process, because property offers criminals a form of investment that can provide a guise of legitimacy and financial stability.

Law enforcement

At the international level, the problem of controlling the profits of unlawful activities came to the fore in the late 1980s as part of the fight against drug trafficking. Between that time and the end of the 20th century, three international conventions addressed the issue: the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of 1988, which for the first time provided that the laundering of proceeds from drug trafficking can be considered an autonomous crime; the Council of Europe Convention on Laundering, Search, Seizure and Confiscation of the Proceeds from Crime of 1990; and the United Nations Convention on Transnational Organized Crime of December 2000. Moreover, the Financial Action Task Force, an intergovernmental body created in 1989 for the purpose of the development and promotion of policies to combat money laundering, issued its Forty Recommendations in 1990. The recommendations, which were subsequently revised multiple times, were created to prevent the proceeds of crime from being used in future criminal activities and from affecting legitimate economic activities.

These various instruments set out an anti-money-laundering strategy consisting of two main components: (1) enhancement of the effectiveness of criminal justice systems by criminalizing money laundering and providing for the seizure and confiscation of illicit proceeds and (2) implementation of a series of preventive measures directed at credit and financial institutions and intended to increase the transparency of financial operations. These measures include the so-called know-your-customer rules (procedures for the identification of clients opening accounts or conducting financial transactions and the conservation of the relevant documentation for a reasonable amount of time), the reporting to national authorities of all transactions that are considered suspicious, and cooperation between financial institutions and national law-enforcement agencies so as to render investigations more effective.

This strategy has been fully enacted and implemented in the United States. The first piece of U.S. legislation enacted to identify cash movements was the Bank Secrecy Act of 1970. Another important item of legislation is the Money Laundering Control Act of 1986, which made money laundering a federal crime. This legislation was amended several times until it achieved the form outlined in Title 18 of the U.S. Code, in sections 1956 (Laundering of monetary instruments) and 1957 (Engaging in monetary transactions in property derived from specified unlawful activity). The Money Laundering and Financial Crimes Strategy Act of 1998 required the Department of the Treasury as well as other federal agencies to periodically produce National Money Laundering Strategy reports. The first report, issued in 1999, highlighted federal efforts to address the problem of money laundering in a coordinated and comprehensive manner. The objectives of the overall U.S. strategy to fight financial crime, as implemented through the end of the 20th century, included combating money laundering by denying criminals access to financial institutions and strengthening enforcement efforts to reduce inbound and outbound movements of criminal proceeds.

Assessment

Money laundering is a serious threat. It has devastating consequences for the financial system and for national security, since it provides funds for terrorists, drug traffickers, arms dealers, and criminal groups. Criminals can rely on dirty money to capitalize their legal entities with criminal proceeds, which distorts competition between legal and illegal enterprises. Despite efforts to implement measures to combat money laundering, the international community and individual countries are continually confronted by new trends in money-laundering activities that may make such measures outdated and ineffective.

It is clear that legislation by itself is by no means enough to effectively combat money laundering. A comprehensive and integrated strategy is required. One of the main goals is to make crime less profitable by confiscating criminal proceeds. Moreover, international assistance is essential for the fight against money-laundering operations undertaken at the transnational level. Bilateral agreements tailored to specific circumstances are the most-effective means to accelerate investigative and judicial processes and overcome difficulties and delays.