moral virtue

moral virtue, in ethics, those qualities or states of character that find expression in morally good actions and morally good purposes or intentions. Moral virtues are persistent patterns of behaviour and thought rather than transient emotions, aspects of intelligence, or physical characteristics.

Aristotle’s conception of moral virtue

Contemporary theories of moral virtue are heavily influenced by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 bce), who conceived of virtue as an excellence giving rise to actions that constitute a “golden mean” between deficiency and excess. For Aristotle, such an excellence must be cultivated to be maintained and can be lost if neglected; it is not a fixed or innate trait. The virtues, besides being concerned with means of action and passion, are themselves means in the sense that they occupy a middle ground between two contrary vices. Thus, the virtue of courage is flanked on one side by foolhardiness and on the other by cowardice.

Aristotle distinguished moral virtues from intellectual virtues, such as wisdom, which governs ethical behaviour, and understanding, which is expressed in scientific endeavour and contemplation. Finding the rational mean necessary to exercise a moral virtue often requires the use of wisdom. However, moral virtue does not lie simply in finding and performing the right action but in developing the traits of character that make performing the right action natural. For example, understanding when to give money to a cause requires the intellectual virtue of wisdom, but actually giving money to a cause on the basis of a natural disposition requires the moral virtue of generosity.

The concept of virtue as a cultivated excellence was familiar to Greeks prior to Aristotle. Well before his time, Greek culture had come to recognize a conventional set of virtues that included prudence, temperance, fortitude, and justice (the four “cardinal” virtues later recognized by Christianity), among others. Aristotle’s teacher, Plato (428/27–348/47 bce), also explored the nature of the virtues in a set of dialogues featuring the character Socrates—a portrayal of Plato’s real-life teacher, Socrates (c. 470–399 bce), who wrote nothing himself. However, Aristotle’s account of virtue in the Nicomachean Ethics has become the most influential treatment of the subject.

Religious conceptions of moral virtue

Concepts akin to moral virtue can be found in many cultures and traditions. In Christianity, the four cardinal virtues were combined with three theological virtues—faith, hope, and charity, or love—yielding the religion’s traditional seven virtues (see also moral theology). According to Christian teaching, the theological virtues do not originate from humanity, as do the natural virtues; instead they are imparted by God. In the religion of ancient Egypt, the concept of maat (“order”) was crucial in human life and embraced notions of reciprocity, justice, truth, and moderation. Maat was personified as a goddess—the daughter of the sun god Re—and became the object of a dedicated cult. In India, the philosophies associated with Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism have influenced one another through their sharing of moral virtues such as ahimsa (Sanskrit: “noninjury”), or the avoidance of causing harm to other living things.

Virtue ethics

Virtue ethics is one of the three major schools of normative ethics. Whereas deontological ethics concerns itself with moral duties and rules and consequentialist ethics with achieving the right outcomes, virtue ethics is founded on the development of personal character (see also ethics: Virtue ethics). Suppose, for example, that one faced a situation in which one could benefit oneself by lying. A deontologist might say that one should not lie because there is a moral duty to tell the truth. A consequentialist might say that one should tell the truth because lying may cause harm to others who are victims of the lie. A virtue ethicist, however, might say that one has an ethical obligation to tell the truth because doing so would be honest, and honesty is a virtue.