Museum activities
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Collection
Acquisition policies
Relatively few museums have been established with the specific goal of forming a collection; instead, most have been created to receive an existing collection. With the existing collection as its base, the museum then traditionally works to fill in gaps in the collection or extend its activities into other, usually related, fields. For this reason, many museums have heterogeneous collections, at best accumulated under an “encyclopaedic” philosophy (which has rarely been successful unless major resources were available to achieve it) and at worst continuing a “cabinet of curiosities” approach (which may amuse and entertain the clientele but does little to engender scholarship or research). Often the collections made depended on the expertise or whim of the curator and were sure to change when that curator was succeeded by someone with different interests. This method has produced some outstanding special collections, but these resulted from circumstance rather than long-term planning.
Explicit collection policies are now more common. Indeed, where national codes of practice exist, a strong recommendation is normally to be found on the need for a clear statement of collecting activity. This arose for a number of reasons. Not only should a public institution’s policies be available for scrutiny, but the cost of maintaining collections of ever-increasing size must be justified, a factor highlighted at times of economic pressure. Further, although a museum may have arisen from circumstance, an assessment of its available resources, the clientele it attracts or intends to attract, and the role it can serve in society generally must be matched against its primary resource, its collections.
Legality
Every museum is responsible for ensuring the legality of its acquisitions. Laws regulating collection vary from country to country, but, whether or not a state has enacted its own legislation or ratified relevant international conventions, museum staff are expected to conform to generally recognized professional codes of ethics. Most regulation of collecting activity embodies principles established in the 1954 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export, and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, both approved by member states of UNESCO. However, a number of countries involved in international trade found it difficult to ratify the 1970 convention, and certain difficulties arose over the definition of cultural property. The 1995 Unidroit Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects was intended to resolve these issues. Similar conventions exist on the regional level as well: for instance, in 1976 the Organization of American States adopted the San Salvador Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological, Historical, and Artistic Heritage of the American Nations, and, with a similar purpose in mind, in 1992 the Council of Europe issued a revised European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage.
Given the number and variety of legal regulations and professional codes, it is unlikely that a museum with clearly stated academic objectives will acquire illicit material. Indeed, methods of collection reflect the fact that a museum is concerned not only with collections per se but also with the information inherent in or associated with them. Where applicable, direct acquisition through fieldwork is much preferred. This involves collecting material through archaeological excavation, ethnological expeditions, or natural science fieldwork, and the collecting either is undertaken by the staff of the museum or is sponsored by it. Indirect acquisition is handled through purchases, gifts, bequests, and loans of objects. Where objects are thus acquired, art museums often stipulate that staff must assess a number of qualifications, notably the provenance (a record of the object’s ownership) of each piece, and that a committee must approve the acquisition.
Protection of cultural property
Conventions such as those cited above reflect the fact that the collecting activities of the industrialized world are markedly different from those available to the developing nations. In some instances the significant cultural property of entire nations has been dispersed to private collections and museums in different parts of the world, leaving the developing museums to rely on casts and replicas to convey the area’s cultural achievements. The international community has had only limited success in encouraging the return, through exchange or loan, of such material to its country of origin.
The true significance of cultural property, collectively the universal heritage of humankind, places on museums a considerable responsibility. The acceptance of objects or collections into their care implies a permanence not associated with the acceptance of other types of property. Some museum legislation acknowledges this, declaring such collections inalienable. The disposal of museum collections in part or in full therefore normally only occurs in cases where items no longer serve a useful scholarly or interpretative purpose. The case for deaccessioning, as it is known, can only otherwise have any validity where it is done to correct the imbalances of earlier indiscriminate collecting, and in that case the material concerned should first be made available to other suitable museums before disposal. The Baltimore Museum of Art, for example, sold several pieces in the 2010s to acquire work by previously underrepresented populations. During this time, however, the Berkshire Museum in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, caused controversy when it announced that it would use proceeds from the sale of dozens of artworks not for the care of its collection or for acquisition purposes, as recommended by the American Alliance of Museums, but for the operation of the institution.