Mathematical paradoxes and fallacies have long intrigued mathematicians. A mathematical paradox is a mathematical conclusion so unexpected that it is difficult to accept even though every step in the reasoning is valid. A mathematical fallacy, on the other hand, is an instance of improper reasoning leading to an unexpected result that is patently false or absurd. The error in a fallacy generally violates some principle of logic or mathematics, often unwittingly. Such fallacies are quite puzzling to the tyro, who, unless he is aware of the principle involved, may well overlook the subtly concealed error. A sophism is a fallacy in which the error has been knowingly committed, for whatever purpose. If the error introduced into a calculation or a proof leads innocently to a correct result, the result is a “howler,” often said to depend on “making the right mistake.”

Many paradoxes arise from the concepts of infinity and limiting processes. For example, the infinite series

has a continually greater sum the more terms are included, but the sum always remains less than 2, although it approaches nearer and nearer to 2 as more terms are included. On the other hand, the series

is called divergent: it has no limit, the sum becoming larger than any chosen value if sufficient terms are taken. Another paradox is the fact that there are just as many even natural numbers as there are even and odd numbers altogether, thus contradicting the notion that “the whole is greater than any of its parts.” This seeming contradiction arises from the properties of collections containing an infinite number of objects. Since both are infinite, they are for both practical and mathematical purposes equal.

The so-called paradoxes of Zeno (c. 450 bce) are, strictly speaking, sophisms. In the race between Achilles and the tortoise, the two start moving at the same moment, but, if the tortoise is initially given a lead and continues to move ahead, Achilles can run at any speed and never catch up. Zeno’s argument rests on the presumption that Achilles must first reach the point where the tortoise started, by which time the tortoise will have moved ahead to another point, and so on. Obviously, Zeno did not believe what he claimed; his interest lay in locating the error in his argument. The same observation is true of the three remaining paradoxes of Zeno, the Dichotomy, “motion is impossible”; the Arrow, “motionless even while in flight”; and the Stadium, or “a given time interval is equivalent to an interval twice as long.” Beneath the sophistry of these contradictions lie subtle and elusive concepts of limits and infinity, only completely explained in the 19th century when the foundations of analysis became more rigorous and the theory of transfinite numbers had been formulated.

Common algebraic fallacies usually involve a violation of one or another of the following assumptions:

Three examples of such violations follow:

Thus a is both greater than b and less than b.

An example of an illegal operation or “lucky boner” is:

Polygonal and other figurate numbers

Among the many relationships of numbers that have fascinated man are those that suggest (or were derived from) the arrangement of points representing numbers into series of geometrical figures. Such numbers, known as figurate or polygonal numbers, appeared in 15th-century arithmetic books and were probably known to the ancient Chinese; but they were of especial interest to the ancient Greek mathematicians. To the Pythagoreans (c. 500 bce), numbers were of paramount significance; everything could be explained by numbers, and numbers were invested with specific characteristics and personalities. Among other properties of numbers, the Pythagoreans recognized that numbers had “shapes.” Thus, the triangular numbers, 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, etc., were visualized as points or dots arranged in the shape of a triangle.

Square numbers are the squares of natural numbers, such as 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, etc., and can be represented by square arrays of dots, as shown in Figure 1. Inspection reveals that the sum of any two adjacent triangular numbers is always a square number.

Oblong numbers are the numbers of dots that can be placed in rows and columns in a rectangular array, each row containing one more dot than each column. The first few oblong numbers are 2, 6, 12, 20, and 30. This series of numbers is the successive sums of the series of even numbers or the products of two consecutive numbers: 2 = 1·2; 6 = 2·3 = 2 + 4; 12 = 3·4 = 2 + 4 + 6; 20 = 4·5 = 2 + 4 + 6 + 8; etc. An oblong number also is formed by doubling any triangular number (see Figure 2).

The gnomons include all of the odd numbers; these can be represented by a right angle, or a carpenter’s square, as illustrated in Figure 3. Gnomons were extremely useful to the Pythagoreans. They could build up squares by adding gnomons to smaller squares and from such a figure could deduce many interrelationships: thus 1² + 3 = 2², 2² + 5 = 3², etc.; or 1 + 3 + 5 = 3², 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 4², 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 5², etc. Indeed, it is quite likely that Pythagoras first realized the famous relationship between the sides of a right triangle, represented by a² + b² = c², by contemplating the properties of gnomons and square numbers, observing that any odd square can be added to some even square to form a third square. Thusand, in general, a² + b² = c², where a² = b + c. This is a special class of Pythagorean triples (see below Pythagorean triples).

Besides these, the Greeks also studied numbers having pentagonal, hexagonal, and other shapes. Many relationships can be shown to exist between these geometric patterns and algebraic expressions.

Polygonal numbers constitute a subdivision of a class of numbers known as figurate numbers. Examples include the arithmetic sequences

When new series are formed from the sums of the terms of these series, the results are, respectively,

These series are not arithmetic sequences but are seen to be the polygonal triangular and square numbers. Polygonal number series can also be added to form threedimensional figurate numbers; these sequences are called pyramidal numbers.

The significance of polygonal and figurate numbers lies in their relation to the modern theory of numbers. Even the simple, elementary properties and relations of numbers often demand sophisticated mathematical tools. Thus, it has been shown that every integer is either a triangular number, the sum of two triangular numbers, or the sum of three triangular numbers: e.g., 8 = 1 + 1 + 6, 42 = 6 + 36, 43 = 15 + 28, 44 = 6 + 10 + 28.