sarcasm

sarcasm, form of verbal irony used to convey the opposite of what is actually spoken, especially in order to criticize or insult someone, show irritation, or be funny. For example, if a person is late to a meeting, someone in the room may sarcastically say, “I’m glad to see you could make it on time.”

The word sarcasm is derived from the Greek sarkázein, meaning “to tear flesh like a dog.” Over time, the term evolved to mean “to bite one’s lips in rage,” “to gnash one’s teeth,” “to sneer,” and “to speak bitterly.” The first known use of the word sarcasm to mean “a sharp and often satirical or ironic utterance designed to cut or give pain” came in 1619. Although sarcasm is a form of irony, the two are not synonymous. Irony can point out the absurdity of something that has occurred—for example, kicking a football (soccer ball) into your team’s own goal—while sarcasm directly criticizes or mocks a person through an utterance.

Types of sarcasm

Sarcasm can be categorized into seven distinct types: self-deprecating, brooding, deadpan, polite, obnoxious, raging, and manic.

• Self-deprecating sarcasm is used when someone mocks oneself disparagingly. For example, a socially awkward person might say, “I’m a genius when it comes to chatting up new acquaintances.”
• Brooding sarcasm is used by someone to say something that is seemingly polite, often in an irritated tone, in order to complain or express pity for themselves. For example, a person who is asked to work overtime at one’s job might respond, “I’d be happy to miss my tennis match and put in the extra hours.”
• Deadpan sarcasm is used when someone delivers a statement without any emotion, making it difficult for others to detect that the individual is being sarcastic. For example, a person might say, “I’d love to attend your party, but I’m headlining in Vegas that evening,” with a straight face, causing others to question whether they might be serious.
• Polite sarcasm (which is definitively impolite in most circumstances) is used when someone appears to be saying something kind but speaks insincerely. For example, a person might say, “Your new shoes are just fantastic,” to indicate that the person finds a friend’s shoes distasteful.
• Obnoxious sarcasm is used when someone makes rude statements intended to directly offend others. For example, a person’s friend may offer a ride to a party, prompting the person to callously answer, “Sure. I’d love to ride in your stinky rust bucket.”
• Raging sarcasm is used when a person expresses rage through exaggeration and violent language. For example, when asked to mow the lawn, a person might respond by yelling, “Why don’t I weed the gardens and trim the hedges too? I already do all of the work around the house.”
• Manic sarcasm is used when a person speaks in an unnaturally high-spirited tone, which makes one appear to be in a manic state. For example, a person who is stressed out about a work project might say, “The project is moving along perfectly, as planned. It’ll be a winner.”

Detecting sarcasm

Verbal indications of sarcasm include exaggerated language, overemphasis on certain words or phrases, and changes in tone or volume. Nonverbal cues of sarcasm include changes in facial expression, such as eye rolling, raised eyebrows, and smirking. Body language, such as crossed arms, a tilted head, and shrugging shoulders, is another nonverbal indication of sarcasm. Context is also crucial in recognizing sarcasm. Research has shown that friends are much more likely to use sarcasm with each other compared with those who are unfamiliar with or dislike each other.

Detecting sarcasm in writing can be more difficult. In literature, context, knowledge of characters’ personalities, and descriptions of characters’ body language and facial expressions can help readers discern whether a sentence or phrase is meant to be sarcastic. For example, a character who has been wronged by someone but thanks the person would be read sarcastically. An example of sarcasm that involves knowledge of a character’s personality traits and past can be seen in Harry Potter and the Half Blood Prince (2005) when Harry, who is known for his adventurous endeavors, responds to Molly Weasley’s advice to stay out of trouble and look after himself by saying, “I always do, Mrs. Weasley. I like a quiet life, you know me.” In an episode of The Simpsons, Professor Frink creates a sarcasm detector. Someone in the room states, “Oh, a sarcasm detector. Oh, that’s a real useful invention,” causing the machine to explode from a sudden influx of sarcastic data.

Other indicators of sarcasm in writing include the use of capital, boldfaced, or italicized words or phrases; the use of quotation marks around a word or phrase (which can be replicated in a physical gesture); and adding extra vowels to words (e.g., “riiight,” “reaaally,” and “cleaaarly”). In email, text messages, and social media, certain emoticons, emojis (e.g., winks, eye rolls, and upside-down smileys), and hashtags (e.g., #notreally, #haha, and #sarcastic) can indicate sarcasm. In fact, the smiley face emoticon, :-), was invented by the Carnegie Mellon professor Scott Fahlman specifically to address when a statement was not to be taken seriously. On the social media site Reddit, users indicate that they are being sarcastic by ending statements with “/s.”

Even with verbal cues, nonverbal cues, and other indicators of sarcasm, certain conditions may prevent those affected from detecting or even producing sarcasm. Such conditions include autism, brain lesions, frontotemporal dementia, schizophrenia, and closed-head injuries.

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Benefits and pitfalls of sarcasm

Research has shown that understanding sarcasm involves complex mental skills and that the brain works harder when presented with sarcasm than with forthright statements. The increase in brain activity has also been shown to promote greater creativity in anyone participating in the exchange. When used appropriately, the distance and control provided by sarcasm is thought by some researchers to ease tensions when dealing with challenging, adverse, or disappointing situations.

However, due to the sometimes vague or biting nature of sarcasm, it can be easily misinterpreted and cause negative feelings, thereby harming relationships. Research has shown that this is particularly true in the context of electronic communications because participants cannot rely on vocal tones, facial expressions, or body language to detect sarcasm. Additionally, researchers found that some people find the mocking, superior nature of sarcastic criticisms to be more hurtful than plainly spoken criticisms.