yakshagana

yakshagana, dance-drama of South India, associated most strongly with the state of Karnataka. Elaborate and colourful costumes, makeup, and masks constitute some of the most-striking features of the art form. Traditionally, yakshagana was performed in the open air by all-male troupes sponsored by various Hindu temples. Since the mid-20th century, however, many performances have been held on indoor stages, and women began to train in the tradition in the 1970s.

With roots in Sanskrit literature and theatre, yakshagana emerged as a form of dance-drama in the 16th century. During the following 500 years, the yakshagana corpus grew to include hundreds of plays, most written in Telugu or in the Kannada language, but only about five dozen of the works were actively performed in the 21st century. The narratives are drawn primarily from the great Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata as well as from the tales of the youthful god Krishna as recounted in the Bhagavata-purana. Historically, the cities of Tanjore (now Thanjavur) and Madura (now Madurai), both in the state of Tamil Nadu, and Mysore, in Karnataka, were centres of yakshagana composition. Among the most-notable texts are the Telugu Sugriva vijayam (“Sugriva’s Victory”; c. 1570) by Kandukur Rudra Kavi and the Kannada works of Parti Subba (fl. c. 1800), who is known for his moving episodes and songs from the Ramayana.

Yakshagana performances use standard character types that are readily identifiable by the colour and design of the actors’ costumes and makeup. Red and black makeup, for example, would signal a demonic figure, while a pinkish yellow face, a prominent mark on the forehead, and a large teardrop-shaped turban would indicate a heroic character. There is, however, some regional variation in such costume codes.

The actors sometimes perform from a script and sometimes improvise their lines, in either case taking their cues from the lead musician, or bhagavatar, who ultimately directs the production. In Karnataka the bhagavatar sings and narrates to set the scene for the action, usually while playing a small handheld gong or finger cymbals called tala. Some ensembles include both the cymbals and a gong, which is played by a second musician. The principal rhythmic component of the music is provided by two drummers, one playing a double-headed maddale, which is struck with the hands, and the other playing a double-headed centa, which is beaten with sticks. Typically, a harmonium carries a drone to anchor the melodic activity. In some cases, the bhagavatar may be supported by additional singers. Yakshagana is similar—if not directly related—to various forms of dance-drama in neighbouring states, most notably the kathakali classical form of Kerala and the terukkuttu street theatre of Tamil Nadu.