The richness of the Iberian heritage, mixed with African movement styles and the indigenous festival tradition, offered an open arena for the development of Latin American dances. As they sought and gained independence, the new republics used music and dance as symbols of defiance and solidarity. Dancing encouraged unity and helped create a new collective identity. Although the dances were varied, most were couple dances that did or did not allow touching—what the American historian John Charles Chasteen has labeled as the “dance-of-two.”

In Peru and Mexico, sonecitos del país became the signature expressions of the burgeoning mestizo (the varying blend of indigenous, European-derived, and African-derived) fiesta dances. In Lima, the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru, the zamacueca became the reigning mestizo dance of the 19th century. Its Spanish influences included an upright body posture, the expressive use of a handkerchief, accompaniment by instruments of the guitar or harp families (or both), and the use of Spanish in the song texts. In the music accompanying the zamacuecas, indigenous influence was seen in the use of the minor mode, which was reminiscent of indigenous scales. Afro-Peruvian influences included swinging and circling hips, rib cage contractions, and the use of a cajón (a sizable wooden box struck with the hands) as an accompanying percussion instrument.

As Andean republics broke from Spanish rule and formed their own identities, the zamacueca dance assumed new names. In Chile and Bolivia it was called la cueca, and in Argentina it was known as la zamba. In Peru the name was changed to la marinera in honour of the Peruvian navy (marina) and the heroes who had died in the horrendous battles along the border between Peru and Chile in the War of the Pacific (1879–83). In most variations of the zamacueca, both male and female dancers used a handkerchief to embellish the rhythmic arm gestures and to send messages to their partner. If the woman wanted to cool the passionate advances of her partner, she held the handkerchief in front of her face. If the man wanted to entice his partner, he draped the handkerchief over her shoulder and slowly slid it off.

The zamacueca developed further during the time of the extensive travels associated with the California gold rush (1849 and a few years after that). The Mexican Pacific ports were stops for Chilean ships as they traveled north. Chilean sailors introduced the cueca chilena, which in Mexico was simply called la chilena, to the states of Oaxaca and Guerrero. The Mexican version, among others, suggested an amorous conquest of the rooster over the hen; the man’s red handkerchief symbolized the cock’s comb. As the dance progressed, the man indicated changes of direction to his partner by flipping his handkerchief with one hand. His other arm was held low to represent the wing of the rooster as he circled around the hen to take her under his wing (embrace her). The dance ended with a zapateado step that imitated the rooster scratching the ground for bugs. This motion was intended to persuade his partner to move closer to him so that he could conclude the conquest. The violin, guitar, cajón, and harp accompanied the Mexican chilenas.

In other areas of Mexico during the middle of the 18th century, the sonecitos del país developed into sones and jarabes, the most famous of which was the jarabe nacional (which became Mexico’s official national dance in 1921). This is the dance known to many North Americans as the “Mexican hat dance,” but its name is properly translated as the “national dance of Mexico.”After Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1810, its regions independently developed son dance styles that were categorized as bailes regionales (regional dances). During fiestas on haciendas and ranches, a tarima (wooden platform) was constructed for son dancers. In Mexico City and Puebla, taverns became another context for playing and dancing sones; however, the Roman Catholic Church quickly condemned many of the early sones and jarabes for their sensuality.

The Latin American dances-of-two that permitted couples to touch were patterned after the European waltz and polka, transformed by the imprint of the Afro-Latino population. Eventually this broad category included the habanera, milonga, maxixe, and danzón. Because pelvic movement was included, whether soft sways as in the Cuban danzón or body-to-body hip grinds and the enlacing of the legs as in the Brazilian maxixe, the early 20th-century couple dances were seen as both titillating and wicked.