Latin America developed rich and varied local and national repertoires of secular dances. Many of the region’s traditional dances were derived from two Spanish folk dances, the fandango and the seguidilla, which reached their peak of popularity in the 18th century. Both were couple dances in which partners were arranged in scattered formation on the dance floor, often an outdoor patio. Strict social codes prevented the dance partners from touching; they remained at a distance of about 2 feet (0.6 metres) apart and maintained their connection by moving together and apart, changing places, and keeping eye contact. The opening, or introduction, often included a paseo de salida (a side-by-side promenade of the space) with a vuelta y colocación (a turn and getting into position). The next section consisted of an adorno (an improvisation of the dancers’ favourite steps). The final phase of the dances was the exaltación, which included spins and turns by the dancers, who remained separate. The Spanish seguidilla ended with a turn and a bien parado (final pose) with the couple side-by-side or facing each other.

Soldiers, merchants, and performers attached to traveling musical theatre companies introduced these dances of the middle and lower classes to Latin America. Narrative themes in the dances included entertaining tales and vignettes of courtship. Because couples were not allowed to touch while dancing, they communicated through facial expressions and eye contact. Handkerchiefs, fans, and long, full skirts were used to embellish courtship rituals and add expressive gestures.

The body posture for fandango and seguidilla was described as asentado, or seated: dancers maintained a bit of flexion in the legs while keeping the torso upright. In the Americas the quality of weight, or grounding, that this position gave the man’s body as he danced was amplified as he mimed motifs from daily work in agriculture and ranching. The word fandango was retained in the Americas, but it changed meaning over time and was eventually used to refer to a dance party or social gathering. Seguidilla was changed in Latin America to bailes de tierra (“dances of the land”) or sonecitos del país (“little country dances”).

The rhythms of the fandangos and sonecitos del país were based on either a step in 3/4 time (i.e., a triple metre, having three beats to the musical measure), called the paseo, or a quick 6/8 cadence (i.e., a compound metre having two three-part beats to the measure), called the zapateado (rhythmic stamping). The flexed hips and knees of the asentado body position made zapateado easier to do. The dance opened with a brief promenade around the dance floor. Then couples faced, with partners acknowledging each other as they waited for the music to signal the first figure. Throughout the dance, couples alternated between paseo and zapateado, embellishing the movements with occasional turns. The couples danced in one spot until the music signaled an exchange of places, a crossing during which couples could pass face-to-face so closely that it appeared they could exchange a kiss. At the close of the dance, couples would spin, turn, and end in a pose, with partners side by side or facing each other. The dance form was highly structured, but there was room for improvisation—which might have included rhythmic embellishments of the zapateados, twists and angles of the body, and communication through expression in the eyes, a tilt of the head, a swish of the skirt, or gestures with a handkerchief.

The Spanish jota is the last form to be identified as a major contributor to the folk dances of the viceroyalties of the New World. This dance was performed in a triple metre, with arms held high. Dancers would snap their fingers or play castanets, and the steps included lively hops interspersed with vivacious turns. Although the castanets were not used in the Americas, the jota is clearly the foundation of many couple dances in the Americas, such as the jaranas of Yucatán (Mexico), the tiranas of Argentina, and the jota Tapatío of Jalisco (Mexico).

Importation of African cultures

Millions of sub-Saharan Africans—chiefly from western and central regions—were captured and shipped as slaves to Latin America between the 16th and 19th centuries. Over time, elements of their dance infused the fledgling bailes de salón and bailes de tierra, both nontouching fandango-based popular social dances. Enslaved Africans made up a significant proportion of the population throughout the Caribbean and in other regions with plantation-based economies (especially sugarcane and coffee); their impact was smaller in Mexico and the Andes. The African-derived cultures in such cosmopolitan ports as Havana and Rio de Janeiro spread to influence the national identities of Cuba, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and other countries. African dance had easily recognizable traits: flexion of the hips and knees; movement that originated in the central core of the body and undulated out to the arms and legs; isolated movements of shoulders, rib cage, or hips; a forward tilt of the upper torso; use of the flat foot rather than the heel or toe; polyrhythmic movement of different body parts (i.e., simultaneous contrasting patterns); and inventive spontaneity. West African dancing focused on a “downward” and relaxed body (i.e., having the appearance of giving in to gravity, having flexed knees, a forward-tilted upper torso, and so on) in contrast to the upright and more rigid style of dance forms from the Iberian Peninsula.

The African influence extended to the burgeoning couple dances of Latin America, especially in the addition of hip movements and more sexual suggestion. Percussion instruments were added to the harp, violin, and guitar ensembles that accompanied bailes de tierra. African polyrhythms and syncopation pushed the dances’ rhythmic complexity, and more of the body was engaged as dancers incorporated hip rolls, shoulder shimmies, leg lifts, and squats. The social dances gained humour and more-explicit flirtation.

Within the African-derived communities, ritual dances were mechanisms for survival in the face of oppression, brutality, and racism. The dances invoked spiritual guides to provide strength for people’s enduring struggles. In certain Afro-Latino practices—especially with Santería in Cuba, Candomblé in Brazil, and Vodou in Haiti—dance developed special meaning. Dance was a mechanism for escape from emotional stress and one way to restore the emotional and physical well-being of the individual and community.