Realism made only slow headway in spite of the example of Johan Ludvig Runeberg, a Finnish poet writing in Swedish. Literature of the 1840s and 1850s was mainly an aftereffect of Romanticism. A movement known as Pan-Scandinavianism, which called for varying forms of political and cultural Scandinavian unity, produced a good deal of verse: Carl Vilhelm August Strandberg (pseudonym Talis Qualis), the fieriest poet of this type, later made excellent translations from British Romantic poet Lord Byron. Popular reading was provided by August Blanche in Bilder ur verkligheten (1863–65; “Pictures of Real Life”), short stories depicting Stockholm life with humour and vivacity, while Frans Hedberg wrote historical plays.

Poetic Realism became an official program of the “pseudonym poets” of the 1860s, including Carl David of Wirsén, Edvard Bäckström, Pontus Wikner, and Carl Snoilsky. Only Snoilsky had the temperament and poetic gift needed to carry out the program. Wirsén, on the other hand, as secretary of the Swedish Academy, launched formidable opposition against innovators. Viktor Rydberg fell between idealism and naturalism. His important early work consisted of an ideological novel, Den siste athenaren (1859; The Last Athenian), and a treatise, Bibelns lära om Kristus (1862; “The Teaching of the Bible About Christ”), which prepared the way for scientific rationalism. Toward the end of his life he published a poem, “Den nya Grottesången” (1891; “The New Song of Grotte”), in which he castigated the evils of materialism and capitalism.

The modern breakthrough in Swedish literature

Four influences combined to free Swedish literature from petrifying conventions: the English writings of naturalist Charles Darwin, sociologist Herbert Spencer, and philosopher John Stuart Mill; the French naturalism of novelist Émile Zola; the drama of the Norwegians Henrik Ibsen and Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson; and the criticism of the Dane Georg Brandes. The modern literature that grew from these influences was first and best represented in the work of August Strindberg, Sweden’s greatest writer. Modern drama dates from his play Mäster Olof (1872), and the modern novel from Röda rummet (1879; The Red Room). Strindberg overshadowed all the writers of the 1880s, including Gustaf af Geijerstam, author of Erik Grane (1885), Anne Charlotte Edgren-Leffler, and Victoria Benedictsson; the latter two wrote about the adverse position of women in society. Benedictsson’s stories, as in Från Skåne (1884; “From Skåne”), revealed the regional character of the new prose literature. Regional poetry was written by Albert Bååth and sometimes by Ola Hansson, both of Skåne, although Hansson was also known for his more cosmopolitan literature.

In 1888 Verner von Heidenstam began the reaction against utilitarianism and naturalism with a volume of verse, Vallfart och vandringsår (“Pilgrimage and Wander Years”). His later poetry and historical tales won him the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1916. Oscar Ivar Levertin, stimulated by Heidenstam’s example, wrote poetry full of colour and lore of the past and as a critic was influential in molding contemporary taste. Gustaf Fröding was also influenced by Heidenstam, his verse ranging from the melancholy to the humorous. Regionalism entered Neoromantic poetry with Fröding, who was from Värmland; the work of Erik Axel Karlfeldt evoked the province of Dalarna. Karlfeldt’s mature poetry won him the Nobel Prize in 1931.

Meanwhile, Selma Lagerlöf, the first Swede and the first woman to win a Nobel Prize for Literature (1909), had developed the prose tale; her long series of novels and short stories, beginning with Gösta Berlings saga (1891), reached an international public through translation. Per Hallström was a more skillful writer of short stories than of novels. Albert Engström, a great humorist both as a writer and as an artist, showed himself a Romantic in his love for the skerries (rocky isles) off Sweden’s coast.

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Poetry: First Lines