Contradictions in Frege’s system.

A worse disaster than neglect, however, was in store for him. While volume 2 of the Grundgesetze was at the printer’s, he received on June 16, 1902, a letter from one of the few contemporaries who had read and admired his works—Bertrand Russell. The latter pointed out, modestly but correctly, the possibility of deriving a contradiction in Frege’s logical system—the celebrated Russell paradox. The two exchanged many letters; and, before the book was published, Frege had devised a modification of one of his axioms intended to restore consistency to the system. This he explained in an appendix to the book. After Frege’s death, it would be shown by a Polish logician, Stanisław Leśniewski, that Frege’s modified axiom still leads to contradiction. Probably Frege never discovered this. Even a brief inspection, however, of the proofs of the theorems in volume 1 would have revealed that several crucial proofs would no longer go through, and this Frege must have found out.

In any case, 1903 effectively marks the end of Frege’s productive life. He never published the projected third volume of the Grundgesetze, and he took no part in the development of the subject, mathematical logic, that he had founded, though it had progressed considerably by the time of his death. He published a few polemical pieces; but, with the exception of three essays in the philosophy of logic produced after the end of the war, he did no further creative work. In 1912 he declined, in terms expressing deep depression, an invitation by Russell to address a mathematical congress in Cambridge.

At the very end of Frege’s life, he again started to work on the philosophy of mathematics, having arrived at the conclusion that one of the fundamental bases of his earlier work—the attempt to found arithmetic on logic—had been mistaken; but the work did not progress very far and was not published.

Up to an advanced age, Frege hiked every summer in Mecklenburg, his native region. He finally retired during World War I and went to live in Bad Kleinen, in Mecklenburg.

Influence of Frege’s work.

Frege’s work represents the beginning of modern logic because of his invention of the notation of quantifiers and variables. (In natural language, generality is represented by inserting an expression like “everything” or “something” in the argument-place of the predicate; in the notation used in logic since Frege, the argument-place is filled by a variable letter, say x, and the resulting expression prefixed by a quantifier, “For every x” or “For some x,” said to “bind” that variable.) By means of this notation he solved the problem that had baffled the logicians of the Middle Ages and prevented the further advance of logic ever since, viz., the analysis of sentences involving multiple generality. In him there also appeared the first clear separation between the formal characterization of logical laws and their semantic justification. His philosophical work is of an importance far more general than the area to which he principally applied it, the philosophy of mathematics: he initiated a revolution, in fact, as profound as that of René Descartes in the 17th century. Whereas Descartes had made epistemology the starting point for all philosophy, Frege gave this place to the theory of meaning or the philosophy of language. His work has been influential because he made the restricted part of philosophy in which he worked basic to all the rest. The effect was imparted in the first place, however, through the work of others, particularly that of Wittgenstein, who visited him in 1914 and who revered him. But, since John Austin’s translation of the Grundlagen into English in 1950, the direct influence of Frege’s writing among English-speaking philosophers has been very great. No one supposes that Frege said the last word on any topic; but there is scarcely a live question in contemporary philosophy of language for whose examination Frege’s views do not form at least the best starting point.