epistemology

Table of Contents

Introduction
The nature of epistemology
- Epistemology as a discipline
- Two epistemological problems
  - Knowledge of the external world
  - The other-minds problem
Issues in epistemology
- The nature of knowledge
- Five distinctions
  - Mental and nonmental conceptions of knowledge
  - Occasional and dispositional knowledge
  - A priori and a posteriori knowledge
    - Necessary and contingent propositions
    - Analytic and synthetic propositions
    - Tautological and significant propositions
    - Logical and factual propositions
    - Necessary a posteriori propositions
  - Description and justification
  - Knowledge and certainty
- The origins of knowledge
  - Innate and acquired knowledge
  - Rationalism and empiricism
- Skepticism
The history of epistemology
- Ancient philosophy
  - The pre-Socratics
  - Plato
  - Aristotle
  - Ancient Skepticism
  - St. Augustine
- Medieval philosophy
  - St. Anselm of Canterbury
  - St. Thomas Aquinas
  - John Duns Scotus
  - William of Ockham
  - Scientific theology to secular science
- Modern philosophy
  - Faith and reason
  - Epistemology and modern science
  - René Descartes
  - John Locke
  - George Berkeley
  - David Hume
    - Kinds of perception
    - Relations of ideas and matters of fact
    - Cause and effect
    - Substance
  - Immanuel Kant
  - G.W.F. Hegel
- Contemporary philosophy
  - Continental epistemology
  - Analytic epistemology
    - Commonsense philosophy, logical positivism, and naturalized epistemology
    - Perception and knowledge
    - Realism
    - Phenomenalism
    - Later analytic epistemology

References & Edit History Quick Facts & Related Topics

Images

$optical illusion: refraction of light$

Ludwig Wittgenstein

St. Anselm of Canterbury

Andrea da Firenze: The Triumph of St. Thomas Aquinas

John Duns Scotus

For Students

$optical illusion: refraction of light$

epistemology summary

Read Next

Spiral Galaxy type Sa-Sb or Sa/Sb in the constellation Virgo. The majestic Sombrero Galaxy Messier 104 (M104) or NGC 4594. The team took six pictures of the galaxy, stitched them together to create the final composite image. Photo from May-June 2003

9 Britannica Articles That Explain the Meaning of Life

Well-balanced of stones on the top of boulder

What’s the Difference Between Morality and Ethics?

Plato (left) and Aristotle, detail from School of Athens, fresco by Raphael, 1508-11; in the Stanza della Segnatura, the Vatican. Plato points to the heavens and the realm of Forms, Aristotle to the earth and the realm of things.

Plato and Aristotle: How Do They Differ?

Aristotle (384-322 BC), Ancient Greek philosopher and scientist. One of the most influential philosophers in the history of Western thought, Aristotle established the foundations for the modern scientific method of enquiry. Statue

Philosophers to Know, Part I

Aristotle statue located at Stageira of Greece

Aristotle at 2,400

Discover

Ahura Mazda - relief of the Zoroastrian god Ahura Mazda at the ancient ruins of Persepolis in Iran. Also known as Ormazd Zoroastrianism,

Which Religion Is the Oldest?

The Jeff Koons tulips sculputure outside the Guggenheim Museums in Bilbao, Spain, Basque Country.

What’s the Difference Between Modern and Contemporary Art?

Stylish light blue jeans on wooden background, closeup of inset pocket

Why Do Jeans Have That Tiny Pocket?

Coriander leaves, fresh green cilantro on wooden background, herbs

Why Does Cilantro Taste Like Soap to Some People?

Four year old boy with grandfather and father lighting Hanukkah menorah. Photo taken on: December 21st, 2009

Which Is Correct: Hanukkah or Chanukah?

Colorful winter sunset

What's the Difference Between a Solstice and an Equinox?

Scottish fold cat. A genetic mutation caused (in the original cat-1961) the ears to bend forward and down.

Shorthair Cat Breeds

epistemology: Facts & Related Content

Written and fact-checked by The Information Architects of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Facts

Also Known As	theory of knowledge • gnosiology

Photos

$optical illusion: refraction of light$

Ludwig Wittgenstein

St. Anselm of Canterbury

Andrea da Firenze: The Triumph of St. Thomas Aquinas

John Duns Scotus

See All Images →

Topics

tabula rasa innate idea sensationalism coherentism foundationalism analytic-synthetic distinction sense-data representationism perspectivism theory of appearing ethics metaphysics philosophy of art aesthetics philosophy of science philosophy of mind political philosophy philosophical anthropology philosophy of language philosophy of law

Dig Deeper: More Articles That Discuss This Topic

Key People

Aristotle

Aristotle

Greek philosopher

Plato

Plato

Greek philosopher

John Locke

John Locke

English philosopher

Justus of Ghent: Saint Augustine

St. Augustine

Christian bishop and theologian

Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant

German philosopher

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

German philosopher

René Descartes

René Descartes

French mathematician and philosopher

David Hume

David Hume

Scottish philosopher

Bertrand Russell

Bertrand Russell

British logician and philosopher

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

German philosopher and mathematician

John Searle

John Searle

American philosopher

George Berkeley

George Berkeley

Irish philosopher

Johann Gottlieb Fichte

German philosopher

William of Ockham

English philosopher

Marjorie Grene

American philosopher

C.I. Lewis

American philosopher and logician

Alexius Meinong

Austrian philosopher and psychologist

Petrus Aureoli

French philosopher

Karl Popper

Karl Popper

British philosopher

Johannes Nikolaus Tetens

German mathematician, economist, and philosopher

List

Spiral Galaxy type Sa-Sb or Sa/Sb in the constellation Virgo. The majestic Sombrero Galaxy Messier 104 (M104) or NGC 4594. The team took six pictures of the galaxy, stitched them together to create the final composite image. Photo from May-June 2003

9 Britannica Articles That Explain the Meaning of Life