Following the June war, Hussein faced three major problems: how to recover from the economic losses caused by the war, how to live with Israel’s occupation of the West Bank and the annexation of East Jerusalem, and how to preserve the Hashemite throne against a considerably augmented and increasingly hostile Palestinian population. The war reversed the progress made in Jordan’s economy prior to June 1967, even with financial aid from Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Libya; yet within a short period both the United States and Great Britain resumed economic and military aid, which helped to restore Jordan’s economy and to preserve peace. In 1971 arrangements were also made with Israel enabling Jordanians to farm in the Jordan Valley.

Despite the fact that an Arab summit meeting held in Khartoum, Sudan, in August 1967 passed the “three noes” resolution—no peace with Israel, no recognition of Israel, and no negotiations with Israel—Hussein resumed his secret negotiations with Israel over the disposition of the West Bank and East Jerusalem. Relations with Israel were thus inseparably linked to the future of the Palestinians. Hussein sought the return of all the lost territory but still privately recognized Israel and cooperated with it across a wide range of issues. Even so, he was not prepared to sign a peace treaty with the Jewish state. The two countries were thus no longer enemies and worked together against PLO terrorism, but little progress was made toward a lasting peace.

Hussein’s relations with the PLO, which under the chairmanship of Yasser Arafat openly challenged the king’s control in East Jordan, reached a crisis in September 1970. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), a radical Marxist Palestinian group, hijacked four international airliners and blew up three of them in Dawson’s Field, a deserted airstrip in the Jordanian desert. Hussein declared martial law, and civil war (later remembered as Black September) erupted. When 250 Syrian tanks entered northern Jordan in support of the PLO, Hussein was forced not only to call upon military assistance from the United States and Great Britain but also to allow overflights by Israel to attack the Syrian forces. The Syrian forces were defeated, and a peace agreement, in which Hussein made concessions to the PLO, was signed by Hussein and Arafat in Cairo on September 27, 1970; by July 1971 Hussein had forced the PLO guerrillas out of Jordan.

From 1973 to the intifada

Hussein chose not to join Egypt and Syria in their surprise attack on Israel in October 1973, although he did make a symbolic gesture by sending tanks to assist Syria in the Golan Heights. In negotiations immediately following the war, Hussein once again demanded the return of the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Israel. He was bitter that Israel—in response to pressure from U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger—proposed a withdrawal of its forces from Israeli-occupied Egyptian territory but made no such overtures to Jordan. However, by August 1974 discussions were under way with Israel over “disengagement accords,” which recognized Jordan as the speaker for the Palestinians and encouraged regional economic and tactical cooperation, especially in relation to the threat posed by Palestinian guerrilla groups. In October leaders of the Arab League at an Arab summit meeting in Rabat, Morocco, declared that the Palestinian people, under the leadership of the PLO (“their sole legitimate representative”), had the right to establish a national independent authority in liberated Palestine. In response Hussein announced that his country would exclude the West Bank from Jordan and would never enter into a federation with a Palestinian state, as such a step would inevitably give the Palestinian population a majority and bring about the loss of his kingdom.

Faced with American reluctance to supply arms and an Egyptian-Israeli Sinai accord, Jordan with Syria agreed in August 1975 to form a joint “supreme command” to coordinate their foreign and military policies in an effort to control PLO activities. In March 1977 Hussein met with Arafat in Cairo, their first meeting since Black September in 1970. In July 1977 Hussein, Egyptian Pres. Anwar Sadat, and U.S. Pres. Jimmy Carter discussed the possibility of a link between Jordan and a Palestinian “entity,” but it was denounced by the PLO.

The election of the right-wing Likud bloc in Israel with Menachem Begin as prime minister in May 1977 brought relations between Jordan and Israel to a low ebb. Determined to annex and retain all of the West Bank, which Israel now called Judaea and Samaria, Begin greatly accelerated the program of constructing Jewish settlements in the West Bank and Gaza. Under the terms of the Camp David Accords in 1978, Israel committed itself to granting autonomy to the Palestinians and to negotiating the future status of the occupied territories, but Hussein condemned the agreement and completely broke off the 15-year secret negotiations with Israel. From late 1977 until 1984, Jordanian contacts with Israel essentially came to a halt. Hussein became increasingly alarmed at the growing popularity in Israel of the view that Jordan was, in fact, the Palestinian state, which would also resolve the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians. Israel’s invasion of Lebanon in 1982 fueled fears in Amman that the first step in the process of transferring Palestinians to the East Bank was under way.

In the early 1980s Hussein sought an accommodation with Arafat and the PLO after the PLO had been expelled from Lebanon and its bases had been destroyed; the two men reached a temporary and somewhat uneasy alliance. In order to strengthen his legitimacy in the eyes of Palestinians, Hussein, in 1984, allowed the Palestine National Council (a virtual parliament of the Palestinians) to meet in Amman. In February 1985 he signed an agreement with Arafat pledging cooperation with the PLO and coordination of a joint peace initiative. Hussein believed that Arafat would accept a confederation of the West and East Banks with autonomy for the Palestinians of the West Bank under Jordanian sovereignty. Arafat, however, had not given up hope of an independent Palestinian state in the West Bank, although he was agreeable to an eventual confederation between such a future Palestinian state and Jordan.

In February 1986 Hussein, frustrated by Arafat’s ambiguity regarding the PLO’s recognition of Israel and renunciation of terrorism, repudiated the Amman agreement with Arafat and broke off negotiations with the PLO. Although the king was careful not to expel the PLO from Jordan entirely, despite an increase in guerrilla violence in the West Bank, he did order the closure of the PLO offices in Amman. In a complete turnaround in the Jordanian policy that had been followed since the Arab summit at Rabat in 1974, Hussein declared that he would now be responsible for the economic welfare of the West Bank Palestinians. In addition, the king announced that the West Bank would be included in an upcoming five-year plan for Jordan and approved an increase in the number of Palestinian seats (to about half) in an enlarged National Assembly. His goal was to create a Jordanian-Palestinian-Israeli administration that would make the West Bank independent of the PLO and enable him to reach a settlement with Israel, in which he would regain at least partial sovereignty of the area.

By April 1987 Hussein and Shimon Peres, then Israel’s foreign minister, had agreed to a UN-sponsored conference involving all parties to seek a comprehensive peace; Palestinian representatives would be part of a Jordanian-Palestinian delegation. Although the proposal was endorsed by U.S. Pres. Ronald Reagan, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir wanted a conference with only Jordan and resisted U.S. pressure for a comprehensive peace conference. Hussein scored a diplomatic triumph by staging an Arab League summit meeting in Amman in November, during which league members agreed to reestablish diplomatic relations with Egypt that had been severed following the Camp David Accords. More importantly for Hussein, the Palestinian issue was not the main topic; instead, the Iran-Iraq War, then in its eighth year, took precedence.

The situation changed dramatically in December, however, with the outbreak of the intifada, a Palestinian uprising on the West Bank. Hussein quickly realized that the uprising was directed against his rule as well as that of the Israelis. His immediate response was to support the intifada publicly and to offer aid to families of victims of Israeli reprisals in an effort to deflect the hostility toward his regime. But the intifada leaders (known as the Unified Command) renounced the king’s overtures, and Arafat quickly assumed the role of spokesman for the revolt. The intifada brought to a halt Jordanian and Israeli plans for an economic path to peace. Hussein thus canceled the five-year plan for the West Bank.