Literature

In the 9th century there flourished such court poets as ʿAbbās ibn Nāṣih, ʿAbbās ibn Firnās, Yaḥyā al-Ghazāl, and the knight Saʿīd ibn Jūdī. Towering above all these, however, was Muḥammad ibn Hāniʾ, nicknamed the “Mutanabbī of the West” (Abū al-Ṭayyib al-Mutanabbī was a 10th-century poet of Iraq), who by virtue of his religious ideas was obliged to forsake his native land and enter into the service of the Fāṭimid caliph al-Muʿizz. In the 10th century al-Manṣūr assembled in Córdoba a notable group of court poets. Bards performed the functions of modern journalists, accompanying their protector on military expeditions and celebrating his exploits in verse, the singsong rhyme of which became engraved in the memory of the people of Al-Andalus. As al-Manṣūr chose the foremost talents of his time to serve as “poet-journalists”—men such as Ibn Darrāj al-Qaṣtallī, al-Ramādī, Ṣāʿid of Baghdad, al-Ṭalīq, and numerous others—this occasional poetry sometimes attained literary heights. In the 10th century Ibn Faraj of Jaén deemed himself to possess sufficient background to compose the Kitāb al-Ḥadāʾiq (“Book of Orchards”)—the first anthology of Andalusian poets. This anthology was soon followed by one by the physician Ibn al-Kattānī.

The highest peak in Islamic literature in Spain was attained during the era of the ṭāʾifas, when the poet-king al-Muʿtamid established an embryo of an academy of belles lettres, which included the foremost Spanish intellects as well as Sicilians who emigrated from their native land before its conquest by the Normans. Other petty kings in the peninsula endeavoured to compete with al-Muʿtamid, but they were unable to assemble a constellation of writers of comparable stature.

Among the outstanding poets of the 12th century in eastern Andalusia (the Andalusian Levant) were Ibn Khafajā of Alcira and his nephew Ibn al-Zaqqāq. To the era of greatest decadence, in the 13th century, belonged Abū al-Baqāʾ of Ronda and Ibn Saʿīd. In the 14th century three court poets, Ibn al-Jayyāb, Ibn al-Khaṭīb, and Ibn Zamraq, preserved their verses by having them inscribed in the Alhambra.

In Arab literature, poetry possesses greater vitality than prose. Even so, there are several prose writers of importance. Ibn Shuhayd (c. 1035) was the author of a work that lent inspiration to Abū al-ʿAlāʾ al-Maʿarrī for his Risālat al-ghufrān (“Epistle of Pardon”). The prolific Ibn Ḥazm of Córdoba (died 1064) wrote the delightful Ṭawq al-ḥamāmah (“The Ring of the Dove”), which dealt with love and lovers and which is still popular today. The enormous output of Ibn Ḥazm includes Kitāb al-Fiṣal, a history of religions that was not surpassed by Western scholars until well into the 19th century. He also was a leading exponent of the Ẓāhirī school of jurisprudence, which stressed thorough knowledge of the Qurʾān and the Hadith. He applied the principles of Ẓāhirism to theology and denounced all non-literalist approaches to theology. Another polymath was the vizier-historian Ibn al-Khaṭīb (died 1375). Two 12th-century anthologies of historical and literary works by Ibn Bassām and Ibn Khāqān are excellent sources of information concerning the apogee of Andalusian letters. Often the best grammars and dictionaries of a language are written by authors living in peripheral zones who endeavour to prevent gross errors being committed by their countrymen in the region. This perhaps explains why Al-Andalus, located at the western fringe of the Muslim world, produced works that to this day are used as texts in some traditional Islamic universities. From among these grammarians al-Zubaydī, tutor of Hishām II and Ibn Maḍāhʾ of Córdoba, who proposed a drastic reform of grammatical methods, stands out. Ibn Mālik of Jaén’s didactic poem Alfiyya (“The Thousand Verses”) constitutes an excellent handbook of grammar; and Abū Ḥayyān of Granada (died 1344), who emigrated to the east, wrote an outstanding commentary on the Quʾrān as well as the first Turkish grammar. In the field of lexicology, the blind Ibn Sīda of Denia (died 1066) is preeminent, author of a sort of “dictionary of ideas.”

Noteworthy in the field of Quʾrānic science are Abū ʿAmr of Denia and Ibn Fierro of Játiva, whose handbooks made possible the correct psalmodizing of the Quʾrān. In addition, various collections of hadiths (traditions referring to the Prophet) appeared, but none of these was of particular importance. In this area the Andalusians were imitators of the East, and figures such as Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr, Ibn Rushd (Averroës), and Ibn ʿĀṣim are of interest.

The first extant chronicles of Muslim Spain, such as the Taʾrīkh iftitāḥ al-Andalus (“History of the Conquest of Spain”) by Ibn al-Qūṭiyyah, date back to the 10th century. In the ṭāʾifa era the preeminent Spanish historian is Ibn Ḥayyān of Córdoba (died 1076), whose mostly preserved Muqtabis is an anthology of historical texts collected from the works of his predecessors; however, he also wrote an original chronicle, the Matīn. Of human interest are the Memoirs of the king Zīrī ʿAbd Allāh, who was deposed by the Almoravids and who sought to justify in those memoirs his deeds as a statesman. In the Naṣrid era is found the aforementioned Ibn al-Khaṭīb. The works of the North African historians Ibn Khaldūn (died 1406) and al-Maqqarī (died 1631) supply much information concerning Al-Andalus.

Philosophy

Andalusia enjoyed a great tradition in philosophy, in part as a means to compete with the dynamic culture in Baghdad and also as a result of limitations placed on philosophic inquiry in the eastern Islamic world. As early as the 10th century, the caliph of Córdoba, al-Ḥakam II al-Mustanṣir, imported books from the east to build a great centre of learning in his city. His efforts bore fruit as Córdoba was graced by three great scholars in the 10th and 11th centuries—Ibn Masarrah (died 931), Maslama al-Majrīṭī (died 1008), and Kirmānī (died 1068)—all of whom were knowledgeable in philosophy, geometry, and other disciplines. The most important, however, was Ibn Masarrah, whose teachings drew from the 5th-century-bce Greek philosopher Empedocles and laid the basis of later Andalusian mysticism.

The foundations of the study of philosophy, set in the 10th and 11th centuries, bore fruit in the 12th century when Neoplatonic thought flourished in Islamic Spain. This development is associated with two important figures: Avempace, known in Arabic as Ibn Bājjah, and Ibn Ṭufayl. Although Avempace, a physician who probably died by poisoning, wrote a number of commentaries on important works by Aristotle and al-Farabi, he is best known for his Tadbir al-mutawah hid (“The Regime of the Solitary”), which was influenced by Neoplatonism and commented on the corrupt nature of society. Avempace’s later contemporary, Ibn Ṭufayl, court physician and adviser of the Almohad ruler Abū Yaʿqūb Yūsuf, offered a more-developed Neoplatonism in his philosophical novel, Ḥayy ibn Yaqzān (“Alive son of Awake”). It is the story of a man who lives the first 50 years of his life on a deserted island, develops his own philosophy, and learns the truth about God.

The greatest Andalusian philosopher, however, and arguably the most important Muslim philosopher, is Ibn Rushd—or, as he is commonly known in the West, Averroës. He represents the high point of the philosophic tradition in Islamic Spain. His commentaries on the works of Aristotle, which had been translated into Arabic in Spain, had great influence on Jewish and Christian thinkers, including Thomas Aquinas, Siger of Brabant, and Boethius of Dacia. From a prominent Córdoban family, Averroës enjoyed a career as a court physician and religious judge in Spain. In 1169 he was commissioned to write commentaries on Aristotle’s works by Abū Yaʿqūb Yūsuf, who was introduced to Averroës by Ibn Ṭufayl. One of the greatest expositors of Aristotle, Averroës also wrote a commentary on Plato’s Republic, in which he critiqued contemporary rulers and governments. Best known for his works on Aristotle, Averroës also wrote The Incoherence of the Incoherence (Tahāfut al-Tahāfut), a spirited defense of philosophy against the theologian al-Ghazālī, and the Decisive Treatise on the Agreement Between Religious Law and Philsophy (Faṣl al-Maḳāl), which argues for the fundamental agreement between religion and philosophy (he did not, however, advocate the doctrine of the double truth, which his Latin interpreters did).

Science

In the mid-11th century Ṣāʿid, a qāḍī of Toledo, composed a noteworthy handbook of the history of science that contained much information on technical subjects. Mathematical sciences received little attention, though Maslama al-Majrīṭī (died 1008), who probably took part in the translation of Ptolemy’s Planispherium and made some contributions to pure mathematics, is particularly noteworthy. During the heyday of Granada, ʿAlī al-Qalaṣādī, commentator on Ibn al-Bannāʾ, did important work on fractions. Despite their lack of interest in the physical sciences, the Andalusians excelled in both theoretical and practical astronomy. A number of these scholars sought to simplify the astrolabe, and finally al-Zarqālī (Azarquiel; died 1100) achieved success by inventing the apparatus called the azafea (Arabic: al-ṣafīḥah), which was widely used by navigators until the 16th century. Al-Zarqālī also anticipated Johannes Kepler by suggesting that the orbits of the planets are not circular but ovoid. The Arab mathematician Jābir ibn Aflaḥ (12th century) was also notable for his criticism of the Ptolemaic system.

Astrology was popular in Muslim Spain, and after 788 the Umayyad rulers retained an official astrologer in their courts. The most widely used astrological treatises were those of the Tunisian ʿAlī ibn Abi al-Rijāl and another, anonymous scientist, who made a translation from Vulgar Latin into Arabic in the 8th century. This book was translated from Arabic into Spanish during the era of Alfonso the Learned under the title of Libro de las Cruces (“Book of the Crosses”).

The treatises on esoteric or occult subjects attribute to Maslama al-Majrītī two works on natural science that are not properly his but may be ascribed to one of his pupils. They are Ghāyat al-ḥakīm (“The Goals of the Scholar”; also known as Picatrix) and Rutbat al-ḥakīm (“The Step of the Scholar”). Greater interest is merited by the Materia medica, a revision of the Eastern Arabic text of the 1st-century Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides ordered by al-Naṣir, on which Jews, Arabs, and Christians collaborated. Gradually the Andalusian Arabs kept adding new medicinal “simples”—which described the properties of various medicinal plants—to those described by Dioscorides, and the last eminent essayist on the subject, Ibn al-Bayṭār (died 1248), describes more than 1,400 of these. The Andalusians were familiar with the texts of the great Latin classics relating to natural science, and Ibn Wāfid, Ibn Baṣṣāl, and Ibn al-ʿAwwām (11th and 12th centuries) quote Varro, Virgil, and others. The most notable geographers in Muslim Spain were Abū ʿUbayd al-Bakrī (died 1094), who wrote the Kitāb al-masālik wa’l-mamālik (“Book of Highways and of Kingdoms”), and al-Idrīsī (died 1166), who was in the service of Roger II of Sicily and is the author of the leading universal geography composed by the Arabs. Somewhat later (1323) there appeared the first Arabic nautical map, possibly of Granadan origin. In technology, Muslim Spain was noted for its windmills and for its manufacture of paper. The Jews who lived in Muslim Spain had become culturally Arabized. They also pursued their own religious studies; the works of Moses Maimonides (1135–1204) are a good example of the cultural brilliance of the Andalusian Jews.