Cryogenian Period

Cryogenian Period, second of three periods of the Neoproterozoic Era of geologic time, extending from approximately 720 million to approximately 635 million years ago. The Cryogenian Period followed the Tonian Period (which lasted from 1 billion to about 720 million years ago) and was succeeded by the Ediacaran Period (approximately 635 million to approximately 541 million years ago). The beginning of the Cryogenian Period was defined arbitrarily: that is, it corresponded to the onset of the first glacial episode to follow the date of 750 million years ago.

For some 65 million years of the period’s 85-million-year span, much if not all of Earth’s surface was covered in ice. The Cryogenian’s longest glaciation, the Sturtian, lasted for the period’s first 50–60 million years. After a brief interglacial, a second cold interval, the Marinoan glaciation, dominated the planet for most of the period’s final 15 million years. These two long glaciations are thought to have been caused by volcanic activity associated with the ongoing breakup of the Rodinia supercontinent, which started near the end of the Tonian Period. The emergence of the Laurentian basaltic province and other flood basalts produced by the massive outpouring of magma is thought to have resulted in increased weathering, a process that pulls carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Scientists contend that enough atmospheric carbon dioxide was removed to weaken the planetary greenhouse effect; colder global climate conditions followed. The global reach of the ice sheets and glaciers during the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations is supported by the discovery of glacial deposits and other rocks that formed in the presence of ice near the location of Earth’s Equator during the Cryogenian.

Two competing hypotheses—“Snowball Earth” (which posits that Earth’s surface was completely covered in ice) and “Slushball Earth” (which posits that at least some portion of the planet was covered by a thin icy film that solar radiation could penetrate)—have arisen to explain how life could survive and evolve in such a harsh setting. In the Snowball Earth hypothesis, life is thought to have survived near hydrothermal vents, in meltwater ponds near volcanoes, or in shallow marine areas where light for photosynthesis penetrated through cracks in the ice. According to the Slushball Earth hypothesis, photosynthetic organisms thrived in small areas of open water or in areas covered by slushy transparent ice (see climate change).

Intense volcanism and tectonic activity continued during the Cryogenian Period, and most climatologists suggest that the release of tremendous amounts of carbon dioxide from volcanic outgassing ended each glacial episode. Rising atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations trapped heat near Earth’s surface, which warmed the air and caused the ice sheets to retreat. Some studies suggest that carbon dioxide levels during the Marinoan increased to perhaps as much as 350 times present-day levels.

Atmospheric oxygen levels also increased during the Cryogenian. Tectonic activity associated with Rodinia’s breakup has been associated with the release of large amounts of phosphorus in the oceans. Photosynthetic organisms likely used this phosphorus to drive a substantial increase in primary productivity in slushy film-covered and open-water areas during glacial periods and after the ice sheets retreated, thereby increasing global atmospheric oxygen concentrations over time.