blood doping
- Also called:
- induced erythrocythemia
- Related Topics:
- blood
- doping
- drug abuse
blood doping, use of substances or techniques that increase the number of circulating red blood cells (erythrocytes) or the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood to improve human performance. Although therapies such as blood transfusion and the administration of drugs to increase red cell production are commonly used in the treatment of diseases ranging from anemia to cancer, they have become increasingly abused by athletes as a way to increase red cell mass, which improves aerobic capacity. Blood doping is used by athletes in a variety of endurance sports, including swimming, cycling, and skiing. Athletes in other sports may use plasma injections to speed physical recovery between competitions; some consider this a form of blood doping. Blood doping is banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency, which oversees the World Anti-Doping Code, a set of regulations guiding the use of drugs in sports that was implemented in 2004 and has been adopted by various international sports organizations, including the International Olympic Committee.
Erythropoietin, synthetic oxygen carriers, and blood transfusion are the most common substances and techniques used in blood doping. Erythropoietin is a hormone produced naturally by the kidneys that travels to the bone marrow, where it stimulates red cell production. In the 1980s, with the introduction of recombinant erythropoietin—which was developed for therapeutic purposes—abuse of the hormone became widespread among athletes. Although use of the hormone was banned in professional sports in 1990, its abuse continued, in part because it was difficult to detect. In the early 21st century, a number of retired Tour de France riders admitted to having abused erythropoietin in the 1990s. Among these individuals was renowned Danish cyclist Bjarne Riis, who had been taking the hormone when he won the Tour in 1996.
A test to detect erythropoietin was introduced at the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. Increasing efforts to improve fairness in sports and to discourage substance abuse among athletes led to the subsequent and successful use of the test at other international sports competitions. Despite the ability of officials to detect the hormone, however, it remained widely abused, and newer forms—such as continuous erythropoiesis receptor activator (CERA), which was developed for persons suffering from kidney disease—challenged existing detection technologies. In 2008 CERA was detected for the first time among cyclists competing in the Tour de France. It was also found in three track-and-field athletes, two cyclists, and a weightlifter competing in the Beijing 2008 Olympics. Other methods used to increase physiological erythropoietin production include the administration of cobalt chloride, which enhances transcription of the erythropoietin gene. Because this practice involves manipulation of a genetic element, it is considered by some to be a form of gene doping.
Synthetic oxygen carriers include perfluorocarbons and hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers. These agents effectively transport and deliver oxygen to tissues and have been explored as oxygen carriers in blood-substitute products for purposes such as emergency blood transfusion. Synthetic oxygen carriers also became popular with athletes, although their use is associated with the risk of adverse cardiovascular events, including myocardial infarction (heart attack) and stroke.
Blood transfusion increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood by increasing the number and concentration of red cells. Autologous transfusion, using one’s own blood that has been collected and stored, or homologous transfusion, using blood from a compatible donor, may be used in blood doping. Although transfusion has been abused by athletes since the 1970s, only homologous doping can be detected. The first test to detect homologous transfusion was introduced in the Athens 2004 Olympics. In addition to the risks normally associated with blood transfusion, such as the transfer of an infectious agent to the recipient, athletes may also experience side effects such as stroke and other acute cardiovascular problems from excess levels of circulating red cells.