The senses of taste and smell

Taste

In terrestrial vertebrates, including humans, taste receptors are confined to the oral cavity. They are most abundant on the tongue but also occur on the palate and epiglottis and in the upper part of the esophagus. The taste receptor cells, with which incoming chemicals interact to produce electrical signals, occur in groups of 50–150. Each of these groups forms a taste bud. On the tongue, taste buds are grouped together into taste papillae. On average, the human tongue has 2,000–8,000 taste buds, implying that there are hundreds of thousands of receptor cells. However, the number of taste buds varies widely; some humans have only 500, whereas others have as many as 20,000. Healthy humans may have anywhere from three to several thousand taste buds per square centimeter on the tip of the tongue, and this variability contributes to differences in the taste sensations experienced by different people.

The taste buds are embedded in the epithelium of the tongue and make contact with the outside environment through a taste pore. Slender processes (microvilli) extend from the outer ends of the receptor cells through the taste pore, where the processes are covered by the mucus that lines the oral cavity. At their inner ends the taste receptor cells synapse, or connect, with afferent sensory neurons, nerve cells that conduct information to the brain. Each receptor cell synapses with several afferent sensory neurons, and each afferent neuron branches to several taste papillae, where each branch makes contact with many receptor cells. Unlike the olfactory system, in which input to the brain involves a single nerve, the afferent sensory neurons occur in three different nerves running to the brain—the facial nerve, the glossopharyngeal nerve, and the vagus nerve. Taste receptor cells of vertebrates are continually renewed throughout the life of the organism.

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The taste receptor system of terrestrial vertebrates is concerned with the detection of chemicals that are taken into the oral cavity and are present at relatively high concentrations. In humans, five different classes, or modalities, of taste are usually recognized: sweet, salt, sour, bitter, and umami. But this is an anthropocentric view of a system that has evolved to give animals information about the nutrient content and the potential dangers of the foods they eat. The major nutrient requirements of all animals are carbohydrates, which act principally as a source of energy. Many lipids can be synthesized from carbohydrates, and animals use proteins derived from carbohydrates to assemble their own body proteins. In general, animals are unable to taste proteins, but they do taste amino acids (from which proteins are made). Some of the amino acids taste sweet to humans, whereas others taste sour, and umami taste, which is meatlike, is a response to glutamic acid and its derivatives, such as monosodium glutamate (MSG). Sweet taste comes mainly from sugars (carbohydrates), and bitter taste derives from potentially harmful chemicals present in food, especially plants, which produce thousands of chemicals that offer the plants some protection from herbivores. The constituents of inorganic salts, such as sodium chloride, potassium chloride, and calcium chloride, are essential nutrients, but the quantities required to fulfill animal nutrient requirements are relatively small. It is possible that the salt taste reflects an animal’s need to avoid ingesting too much salt, which would increase the osmotic pressure in body tissues, producing adverse effects on cell metabolism. Animals experiencing a salt deficit actively seek out and eat sodium chloride, but the sensory basis for this salt appetite is not understood. Minor essential nutrients, such as sterols and vitamins, are not known to be tasted by animals. They are probably of such widespread occurrence that an animal’s normal food contains sufficient quantities, which is true for inorganic salts. However, associative learning may also have an important role in ensuring that appropriate levels of these compounds are obtained (see below Behavior and chemoreception: Associative learning). Except for bitter-tasting substances, the chemicals that stimulate taste receptors are generally water soluble.

Humans do not make further distinctions within the five modalities. For example, different sugars may have different degrees of sweetness, but they do not have distinct tastes. Similarly, bitter-tasting substances, such as quinine or caffeine, taste bitter but do not induce separate tastes, despite great differences in their molecular structures. However, the umami receptor does give the ability to distinguish between naturally occurring amino acids and is sensitive to MSG. Natural foods contain many different chemicals; for example, the taste of an apple may stimulate all the different types of receptors to different degrees.

There is evidence that all taste buds exhibit sensitivity to all taste sensations. However, in humans and some other mammals, there are certain taste papillae with receptor cells highly sensitive to sweet taste, as well as receptors preferentially tasting salt and receptors preferentially tasting bitter substances. The taste receptor cells of other animals can often be characterized in similar ways to those of humans, because all animals have the same basic needs in selecting food. In addition, some organisms have other types of receptors that permit them to distinguish between classes of chemicals not directly related to diet and that enable them to make further distinctions within the modalities.