A retinal detachment occurs when the main vision-sensing part of the retina becomes separated from the pigment epithelium. This may result from an injury to the eye, a tumour within the eye, or inflammation of the underlying choroid. The most common type of detachment, however, has no such predisposing factors; instead, the distinctive feature is the formation of a small hole or tear in the retina, usually at its periphery. In most cases the tear is caused by normal forces acting on attachments between the retina and the gel-like substance called the vitreous humour that fills the interior of the eye. Sudden movement of the eye, age-related changes within the vitreous, or an injury can cause the vitreous to pull on the retina, thus creating a tear. When this has happened, fluid can pass through the hole and strip the retina off the pigment epithelium. Myopic (nearsighted) eyes are particularly prone to retinal detachment because they are larger than normal, and the coats of the eye are thinned and stretched. The periphery of the retina in particular often shows weak areas.
The history of a retinal detachment is often quite typical, with the pull of the vitreous on part of the retina creating a sensation of brief flashes of light noticed by the person as the eye is moved. When an actual tear has developed, the retina may start to become detached, and the person has the sensation of a shadow slowly coming across the vision of the affected eye.
The approach to the repair of a retinal detachment is variable and dependent on the patient and the particular features of the retinal break and detachment. The essential factor in early treatment is to seal off the tear in the retina if there is danger of detachment. The part of the retina containing the tear must be brought into close contact with the underlying pigment epithelium and choroid. The retina is then made to stick to the underlying choroid by means of heat (via a laser) or cold (via cryotherapy), thus sealing off the leak. Remaining fluid under the retina can be drained away, allowing the retina to fall back into place. A scleral buckle is a flexible device that is fitted surgically around the outside of the mid-portion of the eyeball within the orbit and secured so that the retina is flattened back onto the pigment epithelium and choroid. Other techniques are available to accomplish this, including the use of air bubbles or silicone within the eyeball.
Provided that the detachment is not long-standing, retinal function often recovers quite well once the retina has been reattached. The small central area of retina that subserves the most acute vision, called the macula lutea, has only one source of blood supply, the underlying choroid. Once it is separated, some permanent damage usually ensues, even if the retina is subsequently replaced in its correct position. Thus, it is most important that retinal detachments be treated early, before the central area of the retina becomes detached.
Inherited retinal degenerations and age-related macular degeneration
Although inherited retinal degenerations are relatively uncommon, their unusual affects on the retina and the inexorable advance of this diverse group of diseases have stimulated a considerable amount of research in this area. As a result, a large number of genetically determined degenerations of the retina have been described. These conditions are typified by the category of retinal degenerative diseases collectively known as retinitis pigmentosa and the retinitis pigmentosa-like disorders. The earliest symptom is night blindness, which may first be noticed in childhood and is due to alteration in the function of the rods, which are the visual receptors used in dim light. The more peripheral parts of the retina are affected first, and, while central vision may be good, the field of vision often progressively decreases until only “tunnel vision” remains. Genetic studies have linked many forms of retinitis pigmentosa to abnormalities in genes coding for proteins involved in light sensation. The disease is often recognizable on examination by the narrowing of retinal vessels and the scattering of clumps of pigment throughout the retina.
Age-related macular degeneration (ARMD), unlike many other retinal disorders, affects central vision and spares peripheral vision. This common disease occurs in people over the age of 50 and is a major cause of severe vision loss. ARMD is classified into two types: dry macular degeneration (lacking abnormal blood vessels) and wet macular degeneration (containing abnormal blood vessels). The majority of afflicted people have dry ARMD, in which yellowish deposits (drusen) and other abnormalities associated with the retinal pigment epithelium develop. Vision can remain relatively good, provided it does not progress to the neovascular, or wet, type or undergo extensive atrophy.
People with ARMD who experience quick and severe vision loss typically have wet ARMD, in which new blood vessels from the choroid beneath the retina grow up into the space between the pigment epithelium and sensory retina. These vessels may bleed and detach overlying tissues or lead to destruction and scarring of the central retina. In a certain subset of people with ARMD, laser treatment of the affected retina or injection of certain drugs directly into the eye may help slow the degenerative process. While degeneration of the macula does not cause total blindness, it is extremely disturbing because it affects central visual acuity and makes reading or fine work difficult or impossible.
The causes of ARMD are under investigation, as are a variety of treatment regimens. However, while awaiting breakthroughs in the understanding and management of this debilitating disease, many people with ARMD benefit from the use of special magnifying devices and other low-vision aids. The retinal changes that may occur in diabetes mellitus, arteriosclerosis, and vascular hypertension are described below in the section Complications of systemic disease.