Chemistry of the Earth

Geochemistry is broadly concerned with the application of chemistry to virtually all aspects of geology. Inasmuch as the Earth is composed of the chemical elements, all geologic materials and most geologic processes can be regarded from a chemical point of view. Some of the major problems that broadly belong to geochemistry are as follows: the origin and abundance of the elements in the solar system, galaxy, and universe (cosmochemistry); the abundance of elements in the major divisions of the Earth, including the core, mantle, crust, hydrosphere, and atmosphere; the behaviour of ions in the structure of crystals; the chemical reactions in cooling magmas and the origin and evolution of deeply buried intrusive igneous rocks; the chemistry of volcanic (extrusive) igneous rocks and of phenomena closely related to volcanic activity, including hot-spring activity, emanation of volcanic gases, and origin of ore deposits formed by hot waters derived during the late stages of cooling of igneous magmas; chemical reactions involved in weathering of rocks in which earlier formed minerals decay and new minerals are created; the transportation of weathering products in solution by natural waters in the ground and in streams, lakes, and the sea; chemical changes that accompany compaction and cementation of unconsolidated sediments to form sedimentary rocks; and the progressive chemical and mineralogical changes that take place as rocks undergo metamorphism.

One of the leading general concerns of geochemistry is the continual recycling of the materials of the Earth. This process takes place in several ways: (1) It is widely believed that oceanic and continental basalts crystallized from magmas that were ultimately derived by partial melting of the Earth’s mantle. Much geochemical research is devoted to the quantification of this extraction of mantle material and its contribution to crustal growth throughout geologic time in the many stages of seafloor formation and mountain building. (2) When the basalts that formed at the mid-oceanic ridge are transported across the ocean by the process of seafloor spreading, they interact with seawater, and this involves the adding of sodium to the basaltic crust and the extraction of calcium from it. (3) Geophysical data confirm the idea that the oceanic lithosphere is being consumed along the Earth’s major subduction zones below the continental lithosphere—e.g., along the continental margin of the Andes Mountain Ranges. This may involve pelagic sediments from the ocean floor, oceanic basalts altered by seawater exchange, gabbros, ultramafic rocks, and segments of the underlying mantle. Many geochemists are studying what happens to this subducted material and how it contributes to the growth of island arcs and Andean-type mountain belts. (4) The behaviour of dissolved materials in natural waters, under the relatively low temperatures that prevail at or near the surface of the Earth, is an integral aspect of the crustal cycle. Weathering processes supply dissolved material, including silica, calcium carbonate, and other salts, to streams. These materials then enter the oceans, where some remain in solution (e.g., sodium chloride), whereas others are progressively removed to form certain sedimentary rocks, including limestone and dolomite, and, where conditions are conducive for the formation of deposits by means of evaporation, gypsum (hydrous calcium sulfate), rock salt (halite), and potash deposits may occur.

The behaviour of biological materials and their subsequent disposition are important aspects of geochemistry, generally termed organic geochemistry and biogeochemistry. Major problems of organic geochemistry include the question of the chemical environment on Earth in which life originated; the modification of the hydrosphere, and particularly the atmosphere, through the effects of life; and the incorporation of organic materials in rocks, including carbonaceous material in sedimentary rocks. The nature and chemical transformations of biological material present in deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas lie within the scope of organic geochemistry. Organic chemical reactions influence many geochemical processes, as, for example, rock weathering and production of soil, the solution, precipitation, and secretion of such dissolved materials as calcium carbonate, and the alteration of sediments to form sedimentary rocks. Biogeochemistry deals chiefly with the cyclic flows of individual elements and their compounds between living and nonliving systems.

Geochemistry has applications to other subdisciplines within geology, as well as to disciplines relatively far removed from it. At one extreme, geochemistry is linked with cosmology in a number of ways. These include the study of the chemical composition of meteorites, the relative abundance of elements in the Earth, Moon, and other planets, and the ages of meteorites and of rocks of the crust of the Earth and Moon as established by radiometric means. At the other extreme, the geochemistry of traces of metals in rocks and soils and, ultimately, in the food chain has important consequences for humans and for the vast body of lesser organisms on which they are dependent and with whom they coexist. Deficiencies in traces of copper and cobalt in forage plants, for example, lead to diseases in certain grazing animals and may locally influence human health. These deficiencies are in turn related to the concentrations of these elements in rocks and the manner in which they are chemically combined within soils and rocks.

The chemical analysis of minerals is undertaken with the electron microprobe (see above). Instruments and techniques used for the chemical analysis of rocks are as follows: The X-ray fluorescent (XRF) spectrometer excites atoms with a primary X-ray beam and causes secondary (or fluorescent) X-rays to be emitted. Each element produces a diagnostic X-radiation, the intensity of which is measured. This intensity is proportional to the concentration of the element in the rock, and so the bulk composition can be calculated. The crushed powder of the rock is compressed into a disk or fused into a bead and loaded into the spectrometer, which analyzes it automatically under computer control. Analysis of most elements having concentrations of more than five parts per million is possible.

Neutron-activation analysis is based on the fact that certain elements are activated or become radiogenic when they are bombarded with a flux of neutrons formed from the radioactive decay of uranium-235 in a nuclear reactor. With the addition of the neutrons, the stable isotopes produce new unstable radionuclides, which then decay, emitting particles with diagnostic energies that can be separated and measured individually. The technique is particularly suitable for the analysis of the rare earth elements, uranium, thorium, barium, and hafnium, with a precision to less than one part per million.

The induction-coupled plasma (ICP) spectrometer can analyze over 40 elements. Here, a solution of a rock is put into a plasma, and the concentration of the elements is determined from the light emitted. This method is rapid, and the ICP spectrometer is particularly suited to analyzing large numbers of soil and stream sediment samples, as well as mineralized rocks in mineral exploration.