ice jam

ice jam, an accumulation of ice forming where the slope of a river changes from steeper to milder or where moving ice meets an intact ice cover—as in a large pool, at the point of outflow into a lake, or on the edge of a glacier or ice sheet. Ice jams can lead to localized and regional flooding in the area behind the blockage, and the sudden failure of an ice jam can release large quantities of water and ice that may cause damage to nearby structures, croplands, and wildlife habitat downstream. The phenomenon is commonly associated with blockages of ice that prevent the late winter or early spring drainage of rain and melting snows in colder regions or with the breakup of glaciers and ice sheets. There is ample evidence linking vast prehistoric ice jams to megafloods that shaped landforms seen today.

Late winter ice jams

In late winter, as air temperatures rise above the freezing point, river ice begins to melt because of heat transfer from above and the action of slightly warm water flowing beneath. As occurs in lake ice, river ice also may deteriorate and rot because of absorption of solar radiation. On the undersurface, the action of turbulent flowing water causes a melt pattern in the form of a wavy relief, with the waves oriented crosswise to the current direction. Eventually, if the ice cover is not subjected to a suddenly increased flow, it may melt in place with little jamming or significant rise in water level. More likely, however, the ice may be moved and form ice jams.

During the spring in very northern areas, and during periods of midwinter thaw in more temperate areas, additional runoff from snowmelt and rain increases the flow in the river. The increased flow raises the water level and may break ice loose from the banks. It also increases the forces exerted on the ice cover. If these forces exceed the strength of the ice, the cover will move and break up and be transported downstream. At some places the quantity of ice will exceed the transport capacity of the river, and an ice jam will form. The jam may then build to thicknesses great enough to raise the water level and cause flooding.

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Water and its Varying Forms

Because of the larger quantities of ice present, spring breakup jams (that is, ice jams composed of stacked and clustered ice that accumulates downstream) are usually more destructive than freeze-up jams (that is, ice jams that form as a result of water freezing where lake outlets begin or in narrow stretches of rivers). They can cause sudden flooding, and the ice itself may collide with structures and cause damage, even to the point of taking out bridges. Sometimes a jam forms, water builds up above it, and the jam breaks loose and moves downstream only to form again. This process may repeat itself several times. In northerly flowing rivers, such behaviour is typical, since the upstream ice is freed first and moves toward colder, more stable ice covers.

Ice jams and prehistoric megafloods

Some glacial valleys, as well as large upland areas, were sites of major catastrophic floods that resulted from the sudden drainage of proglacial and subglacial lakes. Such floods are known as jökulhlaups, an Icelandic term for subglacial lake outbursts. The largest and best-known floods of this type occurred in the Channeled Scabland of the Columbia Plateau region in eastern Washington state. Ice tongues flowing south from the Cordilleran Ice Sheet periodically dammed the Clark Fork River in Montana, forming Lake Missoula, which was impounded between about 17,000 and 12,000 years ago. Failure of this ice jam released a lake volume of about 2,500 cubic km (600 cubic miles) at discharges of up to 2 × 10⁷ cubic metres (7 × 10⁸ cubic feet) per second. At times, Lake Missoula stretched more than 200 km (125 miles) upvalley into northern Idaho and was about 600 metres (about 2,000 feet) deep near the ice dam. The sudden failure of the ice dam flooded westward and southward across the Columbia Plateau and down the Columbia River valley. The floods cut through a loess cover into basalt and left a system of large dry channels with waterfalls, potholes, and longitudinal grooves in the basalt. Associated with the dry channels are huge coarse-gravel bars and giant current ripples.

In addition, there is substantial evidence from ice core samples suggesting that the collapse of a massive ice jam in Canada released a freshwater torrent into the western Atlantic Ocean about 8,200 years ago. The lake, called Lake Agassiz, was formed about 12,000 years ago as the Laurentide Ice Sheet retreated northward. As the bulk of the water from the lake emptied into the Atlantic through Hudson Bay and the St. Lawrence drainage system, it mixed with salty ocean waters. This process weakened the thermohaline circulation—the great oceanic conveyor belt, a current system that pulls tropical and subtropical waters northward to the British Isles and Scandinavia—and plunged the Northern Hemisphere into a brief 200-year cool period.