prostate cancer
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prostate cancer, disease characterized by uncontrolled growth of cells within the prostate gland, a walnut-sized organ surrounding the urethra just below the bladder in males. Prostate cancer is a frequently diagnosed cancer among males, particularly among those who are older (the disease is rare in men below the age of 40–45) and who live in well-developed regions of the world. In the United States, for example, 13 out of every 100 men will develop prostate cancer in their lifetime. The disease is more common in African American men than it is in Caucasians. Prostate cancer should not be confused with benign prostate hyperplasia, which has similar symptoms and occurs often in older men but is not a type of cancer.
Causes
The causes of prostate cancer are not clear. However, many cases of the disease appear to be related to aberrant cell signaling that involves male androgen hormones, particularly testosterone and its metabolites. Within certain tissues, testosterone may be converted into one of two active compounds—estradiol or dihydrotestosterone. Whereas estradiol promotes the growth of prostate cancer cells, dihydrotestosterone inhibits the programmed death (apoptosis) of those cells. Testosterone itself appears to play a central role in maintaining prostate cells and stimulating apoptosis when abnormal cells arise. However, the mechanism by which testosterone and its active derivatives contribute to the development of prostate cancer is not entirely understood.
The likelihood of a man’s developing prostate cancer doubles if a parent or sibling has had prostate cancer; this suggests that genetic factors play a role. Two genes, known as BRCA1 (breast cancer type 1) and BRCA2 (breast cancer type 2), have been linked to prostate cancer. As their names imply, they are commonly found in mutated forms in some women with breast cancer. However, studies have shown that men carrying mutations in BRCA2 have an increased risk of developing prostate cancer, and mutations in either gene can significantly reduce survival.
Several studies have revealed an association between hereditary susceptibility to prostate cancer and sequence variations in a gene called RNASEL (ribonuclease L), which plays a role in maintaining immunity against viral infections. A common RNASEL variant involves a mutation that results in decreased activity of the encoded ribonuclease L protein, thereby reducing immune defense against viruses. Men who inherit this mutation have a significant increase in risk of prostate cancer.
Symptoms
When the prostate gland becomes cancerous, it can put pressure on the urethra, causing frequent or painful urination, sometimes with a burning sensation. Such pressure can also cause difficulty in urinating, a weak and intermittent urine flow, or blood in the urine. The cancerous growth may also put pressure on the nerves required for erection, causing impotence or sexual dysfunction. Other symptoms of prostate cancer include swollen lymph nodes in the groin and pain in the pelvis, hips, back, or ribs.
Diagnosis
Prostate cancers usually grow very slowly, and individuals may not display symptoms for some time. If the prostate is enlarged, preliminary diagnosis can be made by rectal examination or transrectal ultrasound (TRUS). A blood test for prostate-specific antigen (PSA) may be used to detect prostate tumours in their earliest stages in high-risk individuals. If any of these tests suggest cancer, a biopsy is done to confirm the diagnosis. When caught early, prostate cancer is treatable. A large majority of prostate cancers are diagnosed either before they have spread or when they have spread only locally. Survival rates in these cases are very high.
Treatment
Because prostate cancers usually progress slowly, a physician may recommend a “watchful waiting” approach rather than immediate treatment. This is especially true for patients who are elderly or in otherwise poor health. If treatment is required, the physician may use surgery, radiation, hormone therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of two or more of these approaches. Surgery is usually done only if the cancer has not spread from the prostate. The removal of the entire prostate plus some surrounding tissues (radical prostectomy) may be considered if examination of the pelvic lymph nodes reveals that they are not cancerous. Surgical risks include impotence and urinary incontinence. A second surgical procedure, transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP), is used to relieve symptoms but does not remove all of the cancer. TURP is often used in men who cannot have a radical prostectomy because of advanced age or illness or in men who have a noncancerous enlargement of the prostate. In men who are unable to have traditional surgery, cryosurgery may also be used. In this procedure, a metal probe is inserted into the cancerous regions of the prostate; liquid nitrogen is then used to freeze the probe, killing the surrounding cells. If the cancer has spread from the prostate, radiation therapy may be used.
Hormone therapy attacks androgens that stimulate the growth of prostate cancer. A form of hormone therapy involves drugs called LHRH analogs, or LHRH agonists, that chemically block the production of androgens. Side effects of hormone therapy may include reduced libido, abnormal growth or sensitivity of the breasts, and hot flashes. Orchiectomy, or removal of the testes, cuts off the tumour’s supply of testosterone. This surgery can delay or stop tumour growth and eliminates the need for hormone therapy. If surgery or hormone therapy fails, chemotherapy may be used. Chemotherapy employs drugs that kill dividing cells (i.e., cancer cells) but is not highly effective in treating prostate cancer. It can, however, slow the growth of the tumour.
Men with advanced prostate cancer may be treated with an agent known as sipuleucel-T (Provenge), which is designed to activate the immune system to attack cancer cells. Sipuleucel-T was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 2010, becoming the first immunotherapeutic agent available for the treatment of prostate cancer. Sipuleucel-T is tailored specifically for each patient. Its manufacture is based on the collection of antigen-presenting cells (APCs; a type of immune cell) from the patient’s blood using a procedure known as leukapheresis (the separation of leukocytes, or white blood cells, from other blood components). The APCs are then cultured in a laboratory, where they are grown in the presence of a protein that occurs on the surface of prostate cancer cells. This process results in APC activation, which renders the APCs capable of provoking an immune response against the cancer protein in the patient’s body. The immune-stimulating APCs are returned to the patient through intravenous infusion. The procedure can prolong survival in patients with metastatic disease.
Other drugs, called antiandrogens, block the activity of androgens and are often used in combination with other forms of hormone therapy. An antiandrogen called abiraterone inhibits the activity of an enzyme involved in testosterone synthesis in the testes and adrenal glands. Abiraterone prolongs survival in patients with metastatic (spreading) castration-resistant prostate cancer, which is usually refractory to hormone therapy. Its side effects appear to be limited primarily to hypertension, edema, and potassium deficiency. Another drug that has been investigated for the treatment of men with metastatic hormone-refractory prostate cancer is docetaxel, which inhibits the growth of cancer cells. When used in combination with an immunosuppressant drug called prednisone, docetaxel can prolong patient survival.
Prevention
Risk factors for prostate cancer such as age, race, or family history cannot be avoided. However, studies have suggested that a diet low in fats and high in fruits and vegetables decreases prostate cancer risk. Compounds called lycopenes, which are present in grapefruit, tomatoes, and watermelon, have been linked to reduced risk, as has the nutrient selenium, which is found in nuts, oranges, and wheat germ.
Physicians disagree on the usefulness of routine screening for prostate cancer. Most medical societies and government agencies maintain that certain types of screening do not reduce prostate cancer mortality, and they therefore do not recommend those screening tests. A PSA test and digital rectal examination may be performed for men at high risk of prostate cancer. The test is not recommended for healthy men, however, because high PSA levels are not always indicative of prostate cancer. Indeed, research has shown that in many cases PSA screening may suggest only the presence of an infection, a benign enlarged prostate, or a small slow-growing tumour—none of which requires treatment with anticancer drugs. Furthermore, the risk of infection, impotence, and death associated with biopsies, radiation therapy, and surgery prompted by the results of PSA screening outweigh the value of screening for healthy men.
In some instances, a drug called dutasteride may be prescribed to men who, on the basis of PSA level, are at high risk of prostate cancer. This agent, originally approved for the treatment of benign prostate hyperplasia, works by inhibiting an enzyme called 5-alpha-reductase, which converts testosterone into dihydrotestosterone. The drug has been shown to be effective in reducing the number of men with high-risk PSA levels who are diagnosed with prostate cancer; its use is controversial, however, given the unreliability of PSA screening.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica