Secondary ion mass spectroscopy and ion scattering spectroscopy
For both SIMS and ISS, a primary ion beam with kinetic energy of 0.3–10 keV, usually composed of ions of an inert gas, is directed onto a surface. When an ion strikes the surface, two events can occur. In one scenario the primary ion can be elastically scattered by a surface atom, resulting in a reflected primary ion. It is this ion that is measured in ISS. This is an elastic scattering process, and the kinetic energy of the reflected primary ion will depend on the mass of the surface atom involved in the scattering process, thus providing information about the surface.
In the other possible event, the primary ion can penetrate the surface and become embedded in the solid. When the primary ion penetrates the molecular or atomic lattice, considerable disruption occurs by transfer of momentum to lattice atoms or molecules. This gives rise to an effect called “sputtering.” For ~10 keV primary ions, disruption occurs only a few atomic or molecular layers deep. Stopping such energetic ions in such a short distance can be visualized as disrupting the surface and expelling atoms, atom clusters, molecules, or molecular fragments, all of which may be neutral or ionic. The ions, referred to as secondary ions (thus the term secondary ion mass spectrometry), are focused by an ion lens into a mass spectrometer.
Secondary ion yields produced in sputtering both organic and inorganic materials are very low, 0.1 percent or less for most materials, with most expelled fragments being neutral particles. However, even for a very low primary ion current density—10−9 amperes per square cm (A/cm2)—the number of secondary ions produced is sufficiently large for mass spectra with reasonable sensitivity to be obtained.
The current density of the incident ion beam in ion spectroscopy may be either low (below 10−9 A/cm2; termed the “static” mode) or high (~10−6 A/cm2; termed the “dynamic” mode). In the static mode less than 1 percent of the surface is “hit” by a primary ion in the time required to obtain spectra, and each primary particle therefore encounters an essentially unsputtered surface. In the dynamic mode rapid erosion of the surface occurs in seconds, and the beam bores into the surface. This mode is used for depth profiling.
Secondary ion mass spectroscopy
In SIMS, qualitative analysis for both organic and inorganic materials is obtained through straightforward interpretation of the resulting mass spectra. Quantitative analysis, or determination of absolute ratios of chemical species, however, is difficult because relative ion yields can vary widely with the nature of the surface. The sensitivity variations from sample matrix effects make it impossible to perform absolute quantitative analyses with SIMS. Also, the intensity changes that can occur because of minor changes in the matrix render the relative uncertainties in the measurements, even for calibrated systems, poorer than for the other techniques.
SIMS instruments typically use either a quadrupole or a time-of-flight mass spectrometer. Quadrupole instruments typically operate in the mass range of 1–1,000 atomic mass units (amu; 1 amu is 1.66 × 10−24 gram), whereas time-of-flight instruments extend the available mass range to beyond 10,000 amu. Signal intensities in the mass range below 500 amu are typically more intense than for the higher mass range. However, sufficient numbers of large molecular fragments are produced that can be observed with SIMS, which can provide valuable information.
Of the surface analysis techniques, SIMS is the only technique sensitive to all elements. SIMS shows good specificity, although there is some overlap between peaks of different elements. For example, the Si2+ peak (56) overlaps with Fe+ (56), rendering it difficult to detect small amounts of iron in the presence of silicon by using a low-resolution mass spectrometer that can differentiate only unit masses (1 amu). However, a high-resolution instrument readily distinguishes between them (Si2+ = 55.9538 and Fe+ = 55.9349) because it can typically differentiate 0.001 amu or smaller. Sensitivity variations in SIMS are extremely high. Severe effects from the matrix of the sample give rise to variations in sensitivity of 105 between elements for which SIMS is most and least sensitive. As a rule of thumb, the more electropositive elements show higher sensitivity in positive-ion SIMS, and the more electronegative elements show higher sensitivity in negative-ion SIMS.
An important feature of SIMS is its ability to detect very small amounts of materials on the surface. In the more sensitive cases it is quite possible to achieve a discernible SIMS signal from 10−4 percent (1 part per million) of a monolayer. Therefore, although SIMS is the least quantitative of the surface analytical techniques, it can be the most sensitive.
SIMS is equally valuable for both organic and inorganic analysis. Typical organic applications include analyzing surface coatings on fabrics, detecting impurities in semiconductors, and studying synthetic polymers. Inorganic applications include characterization of heterogeneous catalysts and determination of the surface composition of alloys.
Static SIMS is an ideal method for mapping a surface. Because static SIMS is a fairly nondestructive technique, it is possible to map atoms and molecules of both organic and inorganic species. An ion beam can be focused on a spot with a diameter of less than 0.1 micrometre (μm; 1 μm = 10−6 metre), which is the smallest spot size that can contain sufficient material to produce an image. SIMS has been particularly useful in the microelectronics industry for imaging semiconductor devices.