- Also called:
- track-and-field sports or track and field
- Related Topics:
- pole vault
- weight throw
- hammer throw
- shot put
- long jump
The putting action is best described as shoving the shot, because the rules require that the arm may not extend behind the shoulders during the putting action. The spherical shot is made of metal. The men’s shot weighs 7.26 kg (16 pounds) and is 110–130 mm (4.3–5.1 inches) in diameter. Women put a 4-kg (8.82-pound) shot that is 95–110 mm (3.7–4.3 inches) in diameter.
The putter must launch the shot from within a ring 2.135 meters (7 feet) in diameter and so must gather momentum for the put by a rapid twisting movement. Shot-putters are among the largest athletes in track and field, the most massive ranging from 250 to 300 pounds (113 to 136 kg). Beginning in the 1950s, weight training became a major part of a shot-putter’s training program. In that same period the O’Brien style of putting was popularized, with outstanding results. Developed by Parry O’Brien (U.S.), the style involves a 180-degree turn (rather than the usual 90-degree turn) across the ring, getting more speed and momentum into the action. O’Brien was the best exponent of the style, winning three Olympic medals (two gold) and raising the record from 17.95 meters (58 feet 10.75 inches) to 19.30 meters (63 feet 4 inches). Valerie Adams (New Zealand) won Olympic gold in the event in 2008 and 2012 and was virtually undefeated in major international competitions between 2006 and 2014.
Some athletes have turned to a style in which the putter spins one and a half turns before releasing the shot, a technique developed by Brian Oldfield (U.S.).
The discus throw
Discus throwing is considered by many the classic event of athletics, the Greek poet Homer having made references to discus throwing in the 8th century bce. Modern male athletes throw a 2-kg (4.4-pound) platelike implement from a 2.5-meter (8.2-foot) circle. The discus is launched after the thrower, starting at the back of the circle, has completed one and a half turns. The women’s discus weighs 1 kg (2.2 pounds).
Legendary among discus throwers are the feats of Al Oerter (U.S.), the first to throw over 61 meters (200 feet ). He won an Olympic gold medal at the 1956 Games as a 20-year-old and at each of the following three Games as well. He also set four world records. A standout among women throwers was Faina Melnik (U.S.S.R.), who set 11 world records.
The hammer throw
The implement used in the hammer throw is not a conventional hammer but a metal ball at least 110 mm (4.3 inches) in diameter attached to a wire, the whole implement being a minimum of 1,175 mm (46.3 inches) in length and weighing a minimum of 7.2 kg (16 pounds). The handle at the end of the wire opposite from the ball is gripped by the thrower and released after three or four body turns have developed maximum centrifugal force. The throwing circle is slightly smaller than that of the discus. Women’s hammer throw was introduced into international competition in the 1990s. The hammer used by women is slightly shorter and weighs a minimum of 4 kg (8.8 pounds). The men’s event has been included in the Olympic Games since 1900; the women’s hammer throw made its Olympic debut in 2000.
American athletes of Irish birth or descent totally dominated the event from the 1890s to the 1930s and included John Flanagan, who unofficially set 17 world records and won three Olympic gold medals (1900, 1904, and 1908). After the passing of the Irish dynasty, the power shifted to the eastern Europeans. Among them was Yury Sedykh (U.S.S.R.), who won at the 1976 and 1980 Olympics and raised the record from 80.32 meters (24.5 feet) to 86.74 meters (26.4 feet).
The javelin throw
Javelin throwing involves a spearlike implement that is hurled with an over-the-shoulder motion at the end of an approach run. It is a direct descendant of spear-throwing contests, introduced in the Olympics of 708 bce. The men’s javelin weighs about 800 grams (1.8 pounds) and must be at least 260 cm (8.5 feet) long. The women throw a javelin that must weigh at least 600 grams (1.3 pounds) and be at least 220 cm (7.2 feet) long. It is the only throwing event not using a circle. The javelin is not required to stick but must land point-first for a valid throw.
Throwers from Finland have historically been a force in the event. Matti Järvinen, a Finn, established 10 world records and improved the record by 6.22 meters, finally reaching 77.23 meters (253 feet 4.5 inches) in 1936. As records continued to be broken, there was less and less space within the stadium to throw the javelin safely. Terje Pedersen (Norway) broke the 300-foot (91.44-meter) barrier in 1964, and by 1984 Uwe Hohn (East Germany) had thrown a prodigious 104.80 meters (343.8 feet), a throw so great that it influenced a change in the design of the javelin to keep it within the safe confines of the field. Beginning in 1985, throwers used a javelin that, at the same weight, was designed to reduce the length of the throw by 9 to 12 meters (30 to 40 feet). In 1999 the design of the women’s javelin was changed after successive world records had pushed close to 80 meters (262.5 feet) in the late 1980s.
Decathlon and heptathlon
Both men and women participate in multi-event competitions, the men in the 10-event decathlon and the women in the 7-event heptathlon, which superseded the earlier pentathlon. The competitions, which require a two-day schedule, are held basically at international meets and national championships. In the United States they also are scheduled in many college conference championships.
Each athlete is given points for performance in each event, with more points awarded for better marks. The athlete with the most total points wins.
Men compete in five events each day, doing consecutively the 100 meters, long jump, shot put, high jump, and 400 meters on the first day and the 110-meter hurdles, discus throw, pole vault, javelin throw, and 1,500-meter run in that order on the second day. Women do, in order, the 100-meter hurdles, high jump, shot put, and 200 meters on the first day, followed by the long jump, javelin throw, and 800 meters on the second day.
Jim Thorpe, the great all-around American athlete, won the first decathlon, taking the 1912 Olympic Games contest, and for many years it was mostly an American event. Bob Mathias (U.S.) won his first decathlon at age 17 in 1948 and repeated it four years later. Another two-time winner was Daley Thompson of England, victorious in 1980 and 1984. Notable in the heptathlon was Jackie Joyner-Kersee (U.S.), a record setter and winner at the 1987 World Championships and 1988 Olympics; Carolina Klüft (Sweden), the 2004 Olympic gold medalist; and Jessica Ennis-Hill (U.K.), the 2012 Olympic gold medalist.
Bert Nelson The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica