- Also called:
- track-and-field sports or track and field
- Related Topics:
- pole vault
- weight throw
- hammer throw
- shot put
- long jump
Athletics, occupying center stage at all international games, generates its share of conflicts. Until World Athletics’ trust-fund system there was continual concern about athletes earning money by violating rules. From about 1970 the question of performance-enhancing drug usage has been a major issue. Athletes are forbidden to use a number of drugs that are said to improve performance. Testing for such use is required at the major meets, and, while the great majority of athletes tested are found to be free of banned drugs, each year a small number of athletes are found guilty of violating the drug rule and are suspended from competition, usually for 18 months. Most frequently the violators have used anabolic steroids in an attempt to increase muscle size and strength. Illegal blood doping, which increases the number of circulating red blood cells (erythrocytes), or the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood, has grown as a problem in a variety of endurance sports, including a number of athletics events. The blood doping drug CERA was detected in three athletics competitors at the Beijing 2008 Olympics, ultimately culminating in Bahrain’s Rashid Ramzi being stripped of his gold medal for the 1,500-meter run.
In the 20th century the issue of drug doping reached the top of the sport’s organizing body when in 2015 Lamine Diack, who had served as president of the IAAF from 1999 until that year, was accused of receiving bribes to cover up positive drug tests by Russian athletes, thereby allowing them to compete at the London 2012 Olympics and 2013 world championships in Moscow. Diack was convicted in September 2020 and sentenced to four years in prison.
Events
As many as 25 events may make up a men’s meet; women compete in a few less. The men’s track events at championship meets generally include the 100-, 200-, 400-, 800-, 1,500-, 5,000-, and 10,000-meter runs; the 3,000-meter steeplechase; the 110- and 400-meter hurdles; and the 400- and 1,500-meter relays. The field events usually include the high jump, pole vault, long jump, triple jump, shot put, discus throw, hammer throw, and javelin throw. The decathlon, combining 10 track-and-field events, is also featured. Women run much the same schedule, with a 100-meter hurdles event instead of 110 meters. They compete in the heptathlon (seven events) rather than the decathlon. Women walk up to 20,000 meters and men up to 50,000 meters.
Running
The sprints
The relatively short sprint distances, ranging up to 400 meters, require a sustained top speed. Originally all sprinters started from a standing position, but in the 1880s the crouch start was invented, and it became a rule that sprinters must start with both feet and both hands on the track. The introduction of the adjustable starting block aided the quick start, critical in the sprints.
The current record holder at 100 meters generally is considered to be “the fastest human.” Holding that title have been such champions as Eddie Tolan, Jesse Owens, Bobby Morrow, Bob Hayes, Carl Lewis, Maurice Green, and Justin Gatlin (all of the United States); Valery Borzov (U.S.S.R.); and Donovan Bailey (Canada). Jamaican Usain Bolt, considered the greatest sprinter of all time, holds the current world record of 9.58 seconds, set at the 2009 world championships (Bolt also still has the world record at 200 meters, set at the same event). Outstanding women sprint champions have included Fanny Blankers-Koen (the Netherlands), who won four gold medals in the 1948 Olympics; Wilma Rudolph (U.S.), who won three in 1960; Marita Koch (East Germany), who was a winner at all three sprint distances; and Florence Griffith Joyner (U.S.), who set world records at 100 and 200 meters in 1988, both of which still stand.
The 400 meters is run in lanes all the way; distance is equalized by a staggered start, the sprinters being spaced progressively farther up the track based on the distance their lane is from the inside edge. Outstanding in this event were Lee Evans (U.S.), whose 43.86-second mark remained the world record 20 years after he set it in 1968; Alberto Juantorena (Cuba), whose 44.26-second time in the 1976 Olympics was the fastest without the aid of high altitude; and Michael Johnson (U.S.), whose world record time of 43.18 seconds was set at the 1999 World Championships in Sevilla, Spain. Johnson’s record stood until Wayde van Niekerk of South Africa ran 400 meters in 43.03 seconds at the 2016 Rio Games. Jarmila Kratochvilova (Czechoslovakia) won a rare double victory in the women’s 400- and 800-meter events at the 1983 World Championships.