Comparison of Lithuanian and Latvian
The differences between Lithuanian and Latvian can be summarized in very broad terms by saying that Lithuanian is far more archaic than Latvian and that modern written Lithuanian could in many instances serve as a “protolanguage” for it. For example, Lithuanian has quite faithfully preserved the old sound combinations an, en, in, un (the same is true of Old Prussian, Curonian, Selonian, and, possibly, Semigallian), while they have passed in every case to uo, ie, ī, ū in Latvian; thus, Lithuanian rankà (Old Prussian rancko) = Latvian rùoka “hand,” Lithuanian peñktas (Old Prussian penckts) = Latvian piekt(ai)s “fifth,” Lithuanian pìnti = Latvian pīt “to weave, to twine,” and Lithuanian jùngas = Latvian jūgs “yoke.” The diphthongs ei (as well as ai) and au in final position were monophthongized and later shortened in Latvian—e.g., Lithuanian ved-eĩ (2nd person singular preterite) = Latvian *ved-ie, which became ved-i “you led”; Lithuanian med-aũs = Latvian *med-uos, which became med-us “of honey.” Long vowels at the end of polysyllabic words have been shortened in Latvian, and short vowels have been dropped—e.g., Latvian sak-a “says” (which derives from *-ā) = Lithuanian sãk-o, Latvian pel-e “mouse” (from *-ē) = Lithuanian pel-ė, Latvian vìlk-u “wolf” (from *-uo) = Lithuanian viík-ą, Latvian daikts “thing” (from *-ăs) = Lithuanian dáiktas, and Latvian nakts “night” (from *-ĭs) = Lithuanian naktìs. Palatalized k and g, formed with the blade of the tongue closer to the hard palate than nonpalatalized k and g, were retained in Lithuanian (as in Old Prussian and Semigallian) but changed to c (pronounced like ts) and dz in Latvian (as in Selonian and Curonian): Lithuanian ãkys “eyes” (Old Prussian ackis) = Latvian acis, and Lithuanian gérvė “crane” (Old Prussian gerwe) = Latvian dzer̃ve. The change of the old clusters t + j and d + j progressed further in Latvian. Most Lithuanian dialects have č (as ch as in “church”) and dž (as j in “jam”), whereas Latvian has š (as sh in “shore”) and ž (as z in “azure”)—e.g., Lithuanian trẽčias “third” = Latvian trešs; Lithuanian bríedžai “elks” = Latvian briẽži. Another difference between Lithuanian and Latvian is that, instead of Lithuanian š and ž, Latvian (like Selonian, Semigallian, Curonian, and Old Prussian) has s and z sounds—e.g., Lithuanian širdìs “heart” = Latvian sirds; Lithuanian žiemà “winter” = Latvian zìema. Proto-Latvian (and Prussian) s + j and z + j have passed to š and ž: Latvian šūt “to sew” = Lithuanian siūti; Latvian eža “of a hedgehog” (from Latvian *ezjā) = Lithuanian ežio. Lithuanian has retained the initial clusters pj and bj, which in Latvian (and similarly in Slavic) have passed to pļ and bļ—e.g., Lithuanian piáuti “to cut” (pi is pronounced as pj) = Latvian pļaũt; Lithuanian biaurùs “hideous, nasty” = Latvian bḷaũrs.
Lithuanian has a free stress in contrast to Latvian fixed stress, which occurs on the first syllable. Latvian is more archaic than Lithuanian in the intonations inherited from Proto-Baltic: the Proto-Baltic circumflex intonation has preserved its falling character in Latvian (it became rising in Lithuanian), and the Proto-Baltic acute intonation retained its rising character (it is falling in Lithuanian), although in some cases (because of stress retraction) it has been changed to the broken intonation; e.g., Latvian vãrna “crow” = Lithuanian várna (the rising or extended intonation in Latvian and the falling intonation in Lithuanian from the Proto-Baltic acute intonation), and Latvian zâle “grass” = Lithuanian žolė (the Latvian broken intonation from the Proto-Baltic acute intonation through stress retraction).
There are really no differences in the older morphological features between Lithuanian and Latvian if one does not take into account innovations such as the Latvian debitive verb form (man ir jāmācās “I must study” or “it is necessary for me to study”) and the Lithuanian frequentative past (jie eidavo “they used to go”). Lithuanian and Latvian have two grammatical genders (masculine and feminine) and two numbers (singular and plural), while some Lithuanian dialects also have the dual number. Both Lithuanian and Latvian have seven cases—nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, vocative. Standard Lithuanian has five declensions of nouns with 12 inflectional types; Latvian has six declensions with eight inflectional types. Lithuanian adjectives have three declensions, Latvian adjectives have one. The comparison of adjectives in the two languages is different. Both Lithuanian and Latvian have indefinite adjectives (Lithuanian mãžas, masculine, mažà, feminine, “a small one” = Latvian mazs, maza) and definite adjectives (Lithuanian mažàsis, mažóji “the small one” = Latvian mazais, mazā) with their own specific inflection. The verb in Lithuanian and Latvian has three conjugations (genetically different). There are three persons, the third of which is the same (apparently from the time of Proto-Indo-European) in both the singular and the plural (as well as the dual); for example:
The verb in Lithuanian and Latvian has three tenses (present, preterite [or past], future)—e.g., Lithuanian kertù, Latvian certu (present); Lithuanian kirtaũ, Latvian cirtu (preterite); Lithuanian kir̃siu, Latvian ciršu (future). In contrast to Latvian, Lithuanian also has a frequentative past tense—e.g., kir̃sdavau “I used to cut, strike.” Lithuanian and Latvian have many compound tense forms, compounded from the forms of the verb būti “to be” and participles. There are several moods in both languages, although moods in Lithuanian differ from those in Latvian. The system of participles (active and passive) in Lithuanian and Latvian is quite similar, although complicated—e.g., Lithuanian kertąs, Latvian certuošs (present active); Lithuanian ker̃tamas, Latvian certams (present passive). Lithuanian and Latvian word order is quite free, and, in general, the syntax of both languages is quite similar.
Words are formed in Lithuanian and Latvian basically by means of suffixes, prefixes, and compounding. The languages are very similar in their early vocabulary, and the differences that do occur tend to be more of a semantic nature—e.g., Lithuanian móša “husband’s sister” = Latvian māsa “sister”; Lithuanian žam̃bas “corner, angle (acute)” = Latvian zùobs “tooth.” Some older lexical differences do occur, however (e.g., Lithuanian kraũjas “blood” = Latvian asins; Lithuanian sūnùs “son” = Latvian dēls). In the newer vocabulary, there are now many differences between Lithuanian and Latvian.