Criticism and evaluation

In the first half of the 17th century, at a time when Gassendi was reviving atomistic Epicureanism, René Descartes, often called the founder of modern philosophy, offered arguments that tended to undercut atomism. Reality is a plenum, he held, a complete fullness; there can be no such thing as a vacuous region, or the void of atomism. Since matter is nothing but spatial extension, its only true properties are geometrical and dynamic. Because extension is everywhere, motion occurs not as a passage through emptiness, as Epicurus supposed, but as vortices, or “whirlpools,” in which every motion sets up a broad area of movement extending indefinitely around itself.

Close to the heart of Epicureanism is the principle, which occurred also in Democritus, that denies that something can come from or be rooted in nothing. In a poem composed by an ancient monist, Parmenides of Elea (born c. 515 bce), this principle had been expressed in the two formulas: “Being cannot be Non-Being,” and “Non-Being must be Non-Being.” Though Epicurus had faithfully adhered to this principle almost throughout his system, he has been criticized for abandoning it at one point—in the swerves that he attributed to occasional atoms that take them aside from their normal paths. Epicurus abandoned the principle at this point in order to avoid espousing a physics that was inconsistent with the autonomy that he observed in the physical behaviour of humans and animals. But to his Stoic critics, the swerves of the atoms were a scandal, since they implied that an event can occur without a cause. It has seldom been noted, however, that the swerve is merely a special case—a transposition into atomistic terms—of Aristotle’s theory of accidents (i.e., of properties that are not essential to the substances in which they occur), inasmuch as an accident, too, as Aristotle himself had stated (Metaphysics I 3), is without a cause. Moreover, a similar view was seriously advanced in the 19th century under the name of tychism by Charles Sanders Peirce, a logician and philosopher of science.

To the Stoic charge that Epicurus lacked a doctrine of providence (since he viewed the gods as being lazy), Epicurus answered that “mythical gods are preferable to the fate” posited by the Stoics. It has been suggested that he might equally well have added that the “unmoved mover” of Aristotle’s theology was hardly less lazy than Epicurus’s gods.

The effort of Epicurus to reduce the good to pleasure reflects the only criterion to which he would entrust himself, the “evidence of those passions immediately present,” which give humans the word of nature. In the argument of psychological hedonism, here implied, the Epicurean holds that human beings as a matter of fact do take satisfaction in pleasure and decry pain, and he argues then to an egoistic ethical hedonism that identifies the (objective) good with pleasure. Most moralists, however, have felt that a thoroughgoing psychological hedonism cannot be defended; that desire is often, as a matter of fact, directed toward an object with no thought at all about the pleasure that it will bring; that a mother’s impulse to save her young from danger is more fundamental than any pleasure involved (which usually comes only afterward); that the tendency of a child to imitate his parents can be, in fact, quite painful; and that, as 19th-century utilitarian Henry Sidgwick argued in what he called the “hedonistic paradox,” one of the most ineffective ways to achieve pleasure is to deliberately seek it out.

Some scholars have even argued that an Epicurean egoistic hedonism, however foresighted it may be, must logically be self-defeating. If the view is universalized, the egoist must advocate the maximization of his enemy’s pleasure as well as of his own, which can lead to actions painful to himself. In consequence, the entire branch of ethics that covers the advising or judging of other agents is banned from consideration, and it may be questioned whether such a view can comprise an ethic at all.

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Western philosophy: Epicureanism

On the other hand, it has been argued that humans are subject to antinomies, or contradictions, that no system can escape; there are dimensions in human nature that transcend the rational level. Thus, whatever its rational credentials may be, Epicureanism, as an attitude toward life that was theorized in its purest form by Epicurus, nonetheless remains one of the important forms that human behaviour has often assumed; and, at its best, it has achieved a type of asceticism that, even in retirement and solitude, does not negate company but welcomes it, finding the purest joys of life in the unique richness of human encounters.