The stories of Elijah and his successor, Elisha, are of a different literary genre from the historical accounts of the political developments of the 9th century. The historical accounts are based on the viewpoints and biases of the monarchy, nobility, and military leaders. The stories of Elijah and Elisha are legendary, popular accounts, probably having arisen among the common people. They demonstrate the predilection of the common people to accent what appears to them as the miraculous and the supernatural, much as has been the case among many Roman Catholics and Eastern Christians in stories of their saints. Elijah was depicted, in several instances, as a second Moses—e.g., he fled to the wilderness to escape the retaliation of a ruler, and he encountered a theophany (manifestation of a deity) of Yahweh on Mt. Horeb. As Moses appointed Joshua as his successor, so also Elijah passed on his prophetic mantle to Elisha. Elisha is depicted in typical folk story embellishments and legendary motifs. The original beginning and ending of the Elijah story apparently was lost, but the Deuteronomic historian incorporated the popular accounts of Elijah and Elisha into the court history that gives scholars significant insights into the religious movements of the 9th century.

During the reigns of King Jehoshaphat of Judah (c. 873–849 bce) and King Jehoram (Joram) of Israel (c. 849–842), Elisha began his prophetic career. Elisha was unlike his mentor Elijah in many ways: he did not use uncouth language, he did not shun towns, he wore more fashionable clothing, and he used music to bring about the prophetic spirit—much as Saul had done earlier. A cycle of miracle stories arose around Elisha; he was said to have made bitter water sweet, revived the son of a Shunammite woman from death by breathing into his mouth and lying on top of him, helped a woman to avoid giving up her two sons to a creditor who would make them slaves, informed the Syrian captain Naaman how to be cured from his skin disease, and many other similar actions. In addition to being a miracle worker, Elisha was a political power. He prophesied the defeat of the Moabites as a result of a huge rainfall and advised Joram how to defeat Ben-hadad, king of Syria. By performing this last act Elisha instigated a revolt in Syria; Hazael murdered the sick and dying Ben-hadad.

Elisha sent “one of the sons of the prophets” to anoint Jehu, an army commander, to be the future king of Israel. Rushing in his chariot to Jezreel, Jehu exterminated Jehoram, the last king of the Omri dynasty, his nephew Ahaziah (king of Judah), who was visiting him, and the queen mother Jezebel, who “had painted her eyes, and adorned her head” before she was thrown out of the window and so mangled by the trampling of horses that “they found no more of her than the skull and the feet and the palms of her hands.” Jezebel’s end had come about in a manner similar to the way in which Elijah had prophesied.

The revolution of Jehu was not only politically inspired. A driving force behind him was the arch conservative Rechabite faction, led by Jehonadab. Despising the Canaanites and their agricultural way of life, the Rechabites—descendants of the ancient Kenites of Midian where Moses had experienced the theophany of the burning bush—lived in tents, refused to drink wine, and attempted to retain as many of the accoutrements of the “good old life” of ancient nomadism as possible. With excessive revolutionary zeal they helped Jehu to annihilate the worshippers of Baal, who were tricked into coming to their temple and there murdered. To further emphasize their revolutionary intent, the followers of Jehu, in addition to the holocaust, made the site of the temple of Baal a latrine.

Because the king of Judah (Ahaziah) had been killed in the revolution—along with the remaining northern members of the house of Omri—the southern kingdom was ruled over by the queen mother, Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel. In her zeal to propagate the faith of her mother, Athaliah seized the opportunity to destroy the line of David that tended to be loyal to Yahweh. Liquidating all the male heirs to the throne of David—except the infant Joash (Jehoash) who received asylum in “the house of the Lord”—Athaliah ruled for six years. With support from the priests led by Jehoiada, the army and “the people of the land” revolted, killing Athaliah and her high priest of Baal, Mattan, and destroying the temple of Baal.

In the north, Jehu was succeeded by his son Jehoahaz (reigned c. 815–c. 801), who, in turn, was followed by his son Joash, or Jehoash. During the latter king’s reign, the prophet Elisha died. Though the Deuteronomic historian says little about Israel’s next king, Jeroboam II, he was a major monarch, reestablishing the northern kingdom’s ancient boundaries and fostering a period of economic prosperity. During the reign of Jeroboam II (c. 786–c. 746 bce), a time of both economic advances and social injustice, Amos, the great prophet of social justice, arose. During Jeroboam’s last years another great prophet, Hosea, whose message centred on Covenant love, arose to call an apostate people back to their Covenant responsibilities.

The fall of Israel

After the death of Jeroboam II, however, Israel faced a period of continuous disaster; and no prophetic figure was able to arrest the steady internal decay. From 746–721, when Samaria finally fell to the Assyrians, there were six kings, the last being Hoshea, a conspirator who had assassinated the previous king. The Assyrian king Sargon II deported the leading citizens of Samaria to Persia and imported colonists from other lands to fill their places.

The fall of Judah

The southern kingdom of Judah, under the Davidic monarchy, was able to last about 135 years longer, often only as a weak vassal state. Hezekiah (reigned c. 715–c. 687), with the advice of the prophet Isaiah, managed to avoid conflict with or outlast a siege of the Assyrians. Hezekiah was succeeded by his son Manasseh, an apostate king who stilled any prophetic outcries, reintroduced Canaanite religious practices, and even offered his son as a human sacrificial victim. Soothsaying, augury, sorcery, and necromancy were also reintroduced. The Deuteronomic historian also notes that many innocent persons were killed during his reign. Manasseh was succeeded by his son Amon, who was assassinated in a palace revolution after a reign of only two years. His son Josiah, who succeeded him, reigned from 640 to 609 bce, when he was killed in a battle with the pharaoh Necho II of Egypt. During his reign, one of the most significant events in the history of the Israelite people occurred—the Deuteronomic reform of 621 bce. Occasioned by the discovery of a book of the Law in the Temple during its rebuilding and supported not only by Hilkiah, a high priest, and Huldah, a prophetess, but also by the young prophet Jeremiah, the Deuteronomic Code—or Covenant—as it has been called, became the basis for a far-reaching reform of the social and religious life of Judah. Though the reform was short-lived, because of the pressure of international turmoil, it left an indelible impression on the religious consciousness of the people of the Covenant, Israel, whether they were from the north or the south.

From 609 to 586 Judah felt the coming oppression of Babylon under King Nebuchadrezzar. After the death of Josiah, four kings ruled in Jerusalem, the last being Zedekiah, who failed to heed the advice of the prophet Jeremiah—who had attempted to persuade the king not to trust the Egyptians in a rebellion against Babylon because there would be only one loser, the House of David. Jehoiachin, the predecessor of the puppet king Zedekiah, had been carried off into exile to Babylon in 598; but about 560 he was released from prison, thus leaving a hope that the Davidic line had not become extinct. Despite this small element of hope, the year 586 bce marked the beginning of a tragic period for the people of Judah—the Babylonian Exile. During this period of rethinking Covenant faith, the prophet Ezekiel preached, both in Jerusalem and Babylon, offering the people hope for a restoration of the symbols and cultic acts of their covenant religion.