Legal limitations on marriage
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In earlier legal systems, especially in Asia, the woman’s consent was often unnecessary or of minor importance; the marriage negotiations took place between the woman’s father and the man or his family. Voluntary consent of the parties became important in Roman times. Roman law during the period of the empire distinguished between an agreement for present marriage and an agreement for future marriage (sponsalia per verba de praesenti and sponsalia per verba de futuro). This distinction was taken over by Christianity, and a promise for marriage per verba de futuro was supported by a guarantee or “deposit” payment or by a penalty clause in a marriage contract.
Engagement
The view of the canon law of Christianity was that an engagement incapacitated a person from marriage to a different party and consequently provided ground for annulment of a marriage. This raised an issue that has troubled the civil lawyer but apparently not the common lawyer—i.e., whether penalties, forfeiture provisions, damages, and the like for breach of engagement or betrothal are consistent with the exchange of voluntary consent at the marriage ceremony. Thus, French law has been led to reject an action of breach of promise (while permitting an action in delict—that is, on the ground that one party has been wronged). The common law, on the other hand, allows claims for breach of promise, though the modern tendency is to eliminate this form of action by statute.
The public interest
It has been difficult to delineate the boundaries between public and private interest in marriage law. The public interest is involved in the prevention of clandestine marriages; in requiring a license or the publication of banns as a condition precedent to marriage; in requiring parental consent for marriages between persons of certain ages; and in providing for the registration of marriages in a public manner. In practice, however, the marriage laws are often a mixture of functional administrative provisions (such as the requirement for registration and health certificates), old customs, and religious ceremonies. Marriage statutes were introduced in modern times to combat the danger of clandestine marriages, which were possible under the old law in Europe and England by some form of mutual consent. In addition to direct proof of consent, a clandestine marriage could be established by engagement followed by sexual intercourse (matrimonium subsequente copula) or by habit and repute marriage (evidence of acceptance in the community as being married persons). Clandestine marriage was significant at a time when a man could acquire control over the property of a woman, including absolute ownership of much of it. The emancipation of women has put an end to the economic advantages of the clandestine marriage, but the legislation to which it gave rise has left an impress on the statute books.
Age
In order to satisfy the requirement of a voluntary consent to a marriage, a party must have reached an age at which he or she is able to give meaningful consent, and it is also implied that a person may be legally disqualified on mental grounds from having capacity to marry. Marriages of young children, negotiated by their parents, are prohibited in most modern societies. Historically, the attitude of the English common law was that a person under seven years of age lacked the mental ability to consent to marriage, and that between seven years and puberty there could be consent but not consummation. At common law, therefore, the marriage of a person between the ages of seven and 12 or 14 was “inchoate” and would become “choate” on reaching puberty, if no objection was raised. Most modern legal systems provide for a legal minimum age of marriage ranging from 15 to 18 years. Some systems require parental consent to marriage when the parties are above the minimum age but below some other age, and failure to obtain this may be a ground for annulment. Parental consent has a long historical tradition, and there have been systems in which the girl’s consent was virtually unnecessary. It is difficult to say, therefore, whether modern provisions have a valid social function or are the flotsam of older ideas on marriage.
Relationship
Other laws forbid marriage between persons having certain ties of relationship, either of blood or of marriage. “Forbidden degrees” of one sort or another exist in most social groups. The rules against marrying close relatives are sometimes said to be directed against the dangers of inbreeding, but this does not explain the prohibition against unions between persons who are related only by marriage. In classical Chinese society, marriage was regarded as a linking of different families, and the traditional pattern was exogamy (marriage outside the family). In ancient Egypt, on the other hand, where the pharaoh was deified, marriages within the blood were considered desirable in order to preserve its purity. Marriages between cousins are apparently encouraged in some Arab countries, perhaps to strengthen family ties and to keep property together.
Religion
Religion has had a strong influence on marriage law, often providing the main basis of its authority. Hindu family law, which goes back at least 4,000 years (and may be the oldest known system), is a branch of dharma—that is, the aggregate of religious, moral, social, and legal duties and obligations as developed by the Smritis, or collections of the law. Islamic and Jewish family law also rests on spiritual authority. Religious courts have had jurisdiction over family matters in various countries, and in some countries they still possess it. Some modern religious courts retain only their spiritual jurisdiction over marriage and divorce; their judgments have no standing in the secular law. In some Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox Christian marriages and also in Muslim and Jewish marriages, the application of the religious law is regarded as binding upon persons belonging to the faith. Where religious texts provide the literal authority for legal principles, as in Islamic law, it may be necessary to reinterpret the texts in order to reform the law. This raises complex issues in those Muslim countries where there are movements for greater equality of the sexes.
Gender
By the early 21st century, several jurisdictions, at both the national and subnational levels, had legalized same-sex marriage. In other jurisdictions, constitutional measures were adopted to prevent same-sex marriages from being sanctioned, or laws were enacted that refused to recognize such marriages performed elsewhere. That the same act was evaluated so differently by various groups indicates its importance as a social issue in the early 21st century; it also demonstrates the extent to which cultural diversity persisted both within and between countries.