True propositions can be divided into those—like “2 + 2 = 4”—that are true by logical necessity (necessary propositions), and those—like “France is a republic”—that are not (contingently true propositions). Similarly, false propositions can be divided into those—like “2 + 2 = 5”—that are false by logical necessity (impossible propositions), and those—like “France is a monarchy”—that are not (contingently false propositions). Contingently true and contingently false propositions are known collectively as contingent propositions. A proposition that is not impossible (i.e., one that is either necessary or contingent) is said to be a possible proposition. Intuitively, the notions of necessity and possibility are connected in the following way: to say that a proposition is necessary is to say that it is not possible for it to be false, and to say that a proposition is possible is to say that it is not necessarily false.
If it is logically impossible for a certain proposition, p, to be true without a certain proposition, q, being also true (i.e., if the conjunction of p and not-q is logically impossible), then it is said that p strictly implies q. An alternative equivalent way of explaining the notion of strict implication is by saying that p strictly implies q if and only if it is necessary that p materially implies q. “John’s tie is scarlet,” for example, strictly implies “John’s tie is red,” because it is impossible for John’s tie to be scarlet without being red (or it is necessarily true that, if John’s tie is scarlet, it is red). In general, if p is the conjunction of the premises, and q the conclusion, of a deductively valid inference, p will strictly imply q.
The notions just referred to—necessity, possibility, impossibility, contingency, strict implication—and certain other closely related ones are known as modal notions, and a logic designed to express principles involving them is called a modal logic.
The most straightforward way of constructing such a logic is to add to some standard nonmodal system a new primitive operator intended to represent one of the modal notions mentioned above, to define other modal operators in terms of it, and to add certain special axioms or transformation rules or both. A great many systems of modal logic have been constructed, but attention will be restricted here to a few closely related ones in which the underlying nonmodal system is ordinary PC.
Alternative systems of modal logic
All the systems to be considered here have the same wffs but differ in their axioms. The wffs can be specified by adding to the symbols of PC a primitive monadic operator L and to the formation rules of PC the rule that if α is a wff, so is Lα. L is intended to be interpreted as “It is necessary that,” so that Lp will be true if and only if p is a necessary proposition. The monadic operator M and the dyadic operator ℨ (to be interpreted as “It is possible that” and “strictly implies,” respectively) can then be introduced by the following definitions, which reflect in an obvious way the informal accounts given above of the connections between necessity, possibility, and strict implication: if α is any wff, then Mα is to be an abbreviation of ∼L∼α; and if α and β are any wffs, then α ℨ β is to be an abbreviation of L(α ⊃ β) [or alternatively of ∼M(α · ∼β)].
The modal system known as T has as axioms some set of axioms adequate for PC (such as those of PM), and in addition
- Lp ⊃ p
- L(p ⊃ q) ⊃ (Lp ⊃ Lq)
Axiom 1 expresses the principle that whatever is necessarily true is true, and 2 the principle that, if q logically follows from p, then, if p is a necessary truth, so is q (i.e., that whatever follows from a necessary truth is itself a necessary truth). These two principles seem to have a high degree of intuitive plausibility, and 1 and 2 are theorems in almost all modal systems. The transformation rules of T are uniform substitution, modus ponens, and a rule to the effect that if α is a theorem so is Lα (the rule of necessitation). The intuitive rationale of this rule is that, in a sound axiomatic system, it is expected that every instance of a theorem α will be not merely true but necessarily true—and in that case every instance of Lα will be true.
Among the simpler theorems of T are
- p ⊃ Mp,
- L(p · q) ≡ (Lp · Lq),
- M(p ∨ q) ≡ (Mp ∨ Mq),
- (Lp ∨ Lq) ⊃ L(p ∨ q) (but not its converse),
- M(p · q) ⊃ (Mp · Mq) (but not its converse),
and
- LMp ≡ ∼ML∼p,
- (p ℨ q) ⊃ (Mp ⊃ Mq),
- (∼p ℨ p) ≡ Lp,
- L(p ∨ q) ⊃ (Lp ∨ Mq).
There are many modal formulas that are not theorems of T but that have a certain claim to express truths about necessity and possibility. Among them are Lp ⊃ LLp, Mp ⊃ LMp, and p ⊃ LMp. The first of these means that if a proposition is necessary, its being necessary is itself a necessary truth; the second means that if a proposition is possible, its being possible is a necessary truth; and the third means that if a proposition is true, then not merely is it possible but its being possible is a necessary truth. These are all various elements in the general thesis that a proposition’s having the modal characteristics it has (such as necessity, possibility) is not a contingent matter but is determined by logical considerations. Although this thesis may be philosophically controversial, it is at least plausible, and its consequences are worth exploring. One way of exploring them is to construct modal systems in which the formulas listed above are theorems. None of these formulas, as was said, is a theorem of T; but each could be consistently added to T as an extra axiom to produce a new and more extensive system. The system obtained by adding Lp ⊃ LLp to T is known as S4; that obtained by adding Mp ⊃ LMp to T is known as S5; and the addition of p ⊃ LMp to T gives the Brouwerian system (named for the Dutch mathematician L.E.J. Brouwer), here called B for short.
The relations between these four systems are as follows: S4 is stronger than T; i.e., it contains all the theorems of T and others besides. B is also stronger than T. S5 is stronger than S4 and also stronger than B. S4 and B, however, are independent of each other in the sense that each contains some theorems that the other does not have. It is of particular importance that, if Mp ⊃ LMp is added to T, then Lp ⊃ LLp can be derived as a theorem, but, if one merely adds the latter to T, the former cannot then be derived.
Examples of theorems of S4 that are not theorems of T are Mp ≡ MMp, MLMp ⊃ Mp, and (p ℨ q) ⊃ (Lp ℨ Lq). Examples of theorems of S5 that are not theorems of S4 are Lp ≡ MLp, L(p ∨ Mq) ≡ (Lp ∨ Mq), M(p · Lq) ≡ (Mp · Lq), and (Lp ℨ Lq) ∨ (Lq ℨ Lp). One important feature of S5 but not of the other systems mentioned is that any wff that contains an unbroken sequence of monadic modal operators (Ls or Ms or both) is probably equivalent to the same wff with all these operators deleted except the last.
Considerations of space preclude an account of the many other axiomatic systems of modal logic that have been investigated. Some of these are weaker than T; such systems normally contain the axioms of T either as axioms or as theorems but have only a restricted form of the rule of necessitation. Another group comprises systems that are stronger than S4 but weaker than S5; some of these have proved fruitful in developing a logic of temporal relations. Yet another group includes systems that are stronger than S4 but independent of S5 in the sense explained above.
Modal predicate logics can also be formed by making analogous additions to LPC instead of to PC.
Validity in modal logic
The task of defining validity for modal wffs is complicated by the fact that, even if the truth values of all of the variables in a wff are given, it is not obvious how one should set about calculating the truth value of the whole wff. Nevertheless, a number of definitions of validity applicable to modal wffs have been given, each of which turns out to match some axiomatic modal system in the sense that it brings out as valid those wffs, and no others, that are theorems of that system. Most, if not all, of these accounts of validity can be thought of as variant ways of giving formal precision to the idea that necessity is truth in every possible world or conceivable state of affairs. The simplest such definition is this: let a model be constructed by first assuming a (finite or infinite) set W of worlds. In each world, independently of all the others, let each propositional variable then be assigned either the value 1 or the value 0. In each world the values of truth functions are calculated in the usual way from the values of their arguments in that world. In each world, however, Lα is to have the value 1 if α has the value 1 not only in that world but in every other world in W as well and is otherwise to have the value 0; and in each world Mα is to have the value 1 if α has value 1 either in that world or in some other world in W and is otherwise to have the value 0. These rules enable one to calculate a value (1 or 0) in any world in W for any given wff, once the values of the variables in each world in W are specified. A model is defined as consisting of a set of worlds together with a value assignment of the kind just described. A wff is valid if and only if it has the value 1 in every world in every model. It can be proved that the wffs that are valid by this criterion are precisely the theorems of S5; for this reason models of the kind here described may be called S5-models, and validity as just defined may be called S5-validity.
A definition of T-validity (i.e., one that can be proved to bring out as valid precisely the theorems of T) can be given as follows: a T-model consists of a set of worlds W and a value assignment to each variable in each world, as before. It also includes a specification, for each world in W, of some subset of W as the worlds that are “accessible” to that world. Truth functions are evaluated as before, but, in each world in the model, Lα is to have the value 1 if α has the value 1 in that world and in every other world in W accessible to it and is otherwise to have the value 0. And, in each world, Mα is to have the value 1 if α has the value 1 either in that world or in some other world accessible to it and is otherwise to have the value 0. (In other words, in computing the value of Lα or Mα in a given world, no account is taken of the value of α in any other world not accessible to it.) A wff is T-valid if and only if it has the value 1 in every world in every T-model.
An S4-model is defined as a T-model except that it is required that the accessibility relation be transitive—i.e., that, where w1, w2, and w3 are any worlds in W, if w1 is accessible to w2 and w2 is accessible to w3, then w1 is accessible to w3. A wff is S4-valid if and only if it has the value 1 in every world in every S4-model. The S4-valid wffs can be shown to be precisely the theorems of S4. Finally, a definition of validity is obtained that will match the system B by requiring that the accessibility relation be symmetrical but not that it be transitive.
For all four systems, effective decision procedures for validity can be given. Further modifications of the general method described have yielded validity definitions that match many other axiomatic modal systems, and the method can be adapted to give a definition of validity for intuitionistic PC. For a number of axiomatic modal systems, however, no satisfactory account of validity has been devised. Validity can also be defined for various modal predicate logics by combining the definition of LPC-validity given earlier (see above Validity in LPC) with the relevant accounts of validity for modal systems, but a modal logic based on LPC is, like LPC itself, an undecidable system.