Arboreal and aerial locomotion
Climbing
The adaptation for climbing is unique for each group of arboreal animals. All climbers must have strong grasping abilities, and they must keep their centre of gravity as close as possible to the object being climbed. Because arthropods are generally small and, thus, not greatly affected by the pull of gravity, they show little specific structural adaptation for climbing. In contrast, the larger and heavier-bodied vertebrates have many climbing specializations. In both arthropods and vertebrates, however, no leg is moved until the others are firmly anchored.
Arboreal amphibians and reptiles
Arboreal frogs are slender-bodied anurans with tapering legs and feet. The tips of the toes (digits) are expanded into large, circular disks that may function as suction cups, although such an action has not yet been definitely demonstrated. The disks, however, do increase the contact area, thereby improving grasping ability. The leg-movement sequence during climbing is that of a walking gait.
Arboreal lizards have the same type of climbing gait as arboreal frogs, and their climbing specializations are also similar to those of anurans. They have a different type of climbing foot, however, because of the presence of claws and scales on the digits. Moreover, the entire digits, rather than just their tips, may be expanded. On the bottom of each of these spatula-shaped expansions are one or two rows of transversely elongated scales. Although not visible to the naked eye, the surface of these scales is covered with fine projections that increase their ability to adhere to a surface. Because of this strong adherence, the toes roll off and on the surface on which the animal is walking. Unlike other arboreal lizards, chameleons possess a prehensile (grasping) tail and zygodactylous feet—i.e., the toes are fused into two opposable units. Although these adaptations are inferior for vertical climbing, they are superior for locomotion on vertical or inclined, slender branches. Arboreal snakes tend to have either prehensile tails or extremely elongated bodies.
Climbing birds and mammals
Although the strong, clawed feet of birds permit many of them to climb occasionally, most truly scansorial (climbing) birds cling with their strong feet and brace themselves with stiffened tail feathers. Birds such as woodpeckers and tree creepers usually climb vertically upward, usually with both feet moving simultaneously in short, vertical hops. This mode of locomotion, however, prevents vertical descent. Only the nuthatch can descend as easily as it can ascend; it climbs obliquely, using the upper foot for clinging and the lower foot as a brace. Parrots have developed zygodactylous feet as an aid to climbing; in addition, they frequently use their bills when climbing vertically.
Several locomotor patterns for climbing are used by arboreal mammals, the grasping ability of which has been enhanced by the presence of either strong claws or prehensile fingers. Many monkeys use a climbing gait similar to the leg sequence of walking. Occasionally, however, they use a leg sequence equivalent to that of a trot. Small-bodied climbers with sharp claws, such as squirrels, climb by the alternate use of forelegs and hind legs; essentially, they hop up a tree. Prehensile-fingered climbers descend backward and generally with a walking type of leg sequence. Sharp-clawed species descend with a similar gait sequence but with the head downward.
Leaping
The mechanics of arboreal leaping do not differ from those of terrestrial saltation; the upward thrust in both is produced by the rapid, simultaneous extension of the hind legs. Because of the narrowness of the arboreal landing site, however, landing behaviour does differ. Arboreal leaping also tends to be a discontinuous locomotor behaviour that is used only to cross wide gaps in the locomotor surface. Leaping from limb to limb, although occasionally employed by most climbers, appears to occur most frequently in animals with opposable or at least prehensile forefeet, particularly tree frogs and primates. Such forefeet enable the animal to grasp and hold onto the landing site.
Brachiation
True brachiation (using the arms to swing from one place to another) is confined to a few species of primates, such as gibbons and spider monkeys. Because the body is suspended from a branch by the arms, brachiation is strictly foreleg locomotion. When the animal moves, it relaxes the grip of one hand, and the body pivots on the shoulder of the opposite arm and swings forward; then the free arm reaches forward at the end of the body’s swing and grabs a branch. The sequence is then repeated for the other arm. This locomotor pattern produces a relatively rapid and continuous forward movement but is restricted to areas with thick canopies of trees. Brachiators have arms that may be as long or longer than the body and a very motile shoulder joint.
Gliding
There are two functionally distinct forms of gliding, gravitational gliding and soaring: the former is used by gliding amphibians, reptiles, and mammals; the latter is restricted to birds. All gliders are able to increase the relative width of their bodies, thereby increasing the surface area exposed to wind resistance. The few gliding frogs flatten their bodies dorsoventrally and spread their limbs outward. Gliding snakes not only flatten their bodies but also draw in the ventral scales, thereby creating a trough. The best-adapted gliding lizards have elongated ribs that open laterally like a fan.
Gliding mammals, such as the African flying squirrel and the colugo, usually have, on each side of the body, a fold of skin (the patagium) that extends from their wrist or forearm backward along the body to the shank of the hind leg or the ankle. When gliding, they assume a spread-eagle posture, and the patagia unfold.