- Anglo-Saxon England
- 18th-century Britain, 1714–1815
- Britain from 1914 to the present
Higher education
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Universities historically have been independent and self-governing; however, they have close links with the central government because a large proportion of their income derives from public funds. Higher education also takes place in other colleges.
Students do not have a right to a place at a university; they are carefully selected by examination performance, and the dropout rate is low by international standards. Most students receive state-funded grants inversely related to their parents’ income to cover the tuition fees. In addition, most students receive state-funded loans to cover living expenses. Foreign students and British students taking a degree at an overseas university are not generally eligible for public funding.
Public funds flow to universities through recurrent grants and in the form of tuition fees; universities also derive income from foreign students and from various private-sector sources. After a major expansion in the 1960s, the system came under pressure in the 1980s. Public funding became more restricted, and the grant system no longer supported students adequately. The government introduced the present system of student loans to replace dwindling grants for living expenses and established higher-education funding councils in each part of the United Kingdom (England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland) to coordinate state support of higher education. In 2010, in the interest of budget reduction, the government raised the maximum level of tuition for higher educational institutions in England to £9,000 (about $11,600) per year. In 2016 that limit was raised to £9,250 (about $11,900), with plans to allow further increases to keep up with inflation.
The Open University—a unique innovation in higher education—is a degree-granting institution that provides courses of study for adults through television, radio, and local study programs. Applicants must apply for a number of places limited at any time by the availability of teachers.
Nicholas A. Barr Peter KellnerCultural life
English culture tends to dominate the formal cultural life of the United Kingdom, but Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland have also made important contributions, as have the cultures that British colonialism brought into contact with the homeland. Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland share fully in the common culture but also preserve lively traditions that predate political union with England.
Widespread changes in the United Kingdom’s cultural life occurred after 1945. The most remarkable was perhaps the emergence first of Liverpool and then of London in the 1960s as a world centre of popular culture. The Beatles were only the first and best-known of the many British rock groups to win a world following. British clothing designers for a time led the world as innovators of new styles of dress for both men and women, and the brightly coloured outfits sold in London’s Carnaby Street and King’s Road shops briefly became more symbolic of Britain than the traditionally staid tailoring of Savile Row.
Underlying both this development and a similar if less-remarked renewal of vigour in more traditional fields were several important social developments in the decades after World War II. Most evident was the rising standard of education. The number of pupils going on to higher education increased dramatically after World War II and was matched by a major expansion in the number of universities and other institutions of higher education. In society in general there was a marked increase in leisure. Furthermore, immigration, particularly from the West Indies and South Asia, introduced new cultural currents to the United Kingdom and contributed to innovation in music, film, literature, and other arts.
Daily life and social customs
The United Kingdom’s cultural traditions are reflective of the country’s heterogeneity and its central importance in world affairs over the past several centuries. Each constituent part of the United Kingdom—England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland—maintains its own unique customs, traditions, cuisine, and festivals. Moreover, as Britain’s empire spanned the globe, it became a focal point of immigration, especially after the independence of its colonies, from its colonial possessions. As a result, immigrants from all corners of the world have entered the United Kingdom and settled throughout the country, leaving indelible imprints on British culture. Thus, at the beginning of the 21st century, age-old English, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh customs stood alongside the rich traditions of Afro-Caribbean, Asian, and Muslim immigrants, placing the United Kingdom among the world’s most cosmopolitan and diverse countries.
The arts
From the plays of William Shakespeare to the music of the Sex Pistols, British art has had a tremendous impact on world culture. Writers from every part of the United Kingdom, joined by immigrants from parts of the former British Empire and the Commonwealth, have enriched the English language and world literature alike with their work. British studios, playwrights, directors, and actors have been remarkable pioneers of stage and screen. British comedians have brought laughter to diverse audiences and been widely imitated; British composers have found devoted listeners around the world, as have various contemporary pop groups and singer-songwriters; and British philosophers have had a tremendous influence in shaping the course of scientific and moral inquiry. From medieval time to the present, this extraordinary flowering of the arts has been encouraged at every level of society. Early royal patronage played an important role in the development of the arts in Britain, and since the mid 20th century the British government has done much to foster their growth.
The independent Arts Council of Great Britain, which was founded in 1946, supported many kinds of contemporary creative and performing arts until 1994, when it devolved into the Arts Council of England (which became Arts Council England in 2003 after joining with the Regional Arts Boards), the Arts Council of Wales, and the Scottish Arts Council (the last becoming Creative Scotland 2010, when it consolidated with Scottish Screen). Having developed separately from the Arts Council of Great Britain, the Arts Council of Northern Ireland reorganized in 1995.
The state-owned British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and privately owned Channel Four Television are also major patrons of the arts, especially music and film. The work of filmmakers and actors throughout the United Kingdom is supported by the Film Council, a government board that helps fund productions and secure film-related services. This support has contributed to the great expansion of the market for cultural goods and of audiences for the arts generally. As in many other highly developed countries, the clash of tastes and values between generations and, to some extent, between social classes has occasionally been sharp, as it was in the 1960s and ’70s. However, the overall effect of social and financial diversity has been to make culture a major British industry.
Cultural institutions
The United Kingdom contains many cultural treasures. It is home to a wide range of learned societies, including the British Academy, the Royal Geographical Society, and the Royal Society of Edinburgh. The British Museum in London houses historical artifacts from all parts of the globe. London is also home to many museums (e.g., the National Gallery, the National Portrait Gallery, the Tate galleries, the Imperial War Museum, and the Victoria and Albert Museum) and theatres (e.g., the Royal National Theatre and those in the world-renowned West End theatre district). Cultural institutions also abound throughout the country. Among the many libraries and museums of interest in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland are the Royal Museum, the Museum of Scotland, and the Writers’ Museum in Edinburgh, the Museum of Scottish Country Life in Glasgow, the National Museum of Wales in Cardiff, and the Ulster Museum in Belfast.