Copley Medal

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James Bradley, detail of an oil painting after Thomas Hudson, c. 1742-47; in the National Portrait Gallery, London

John Harrison, detail of an oil painting by Thomas King; in the Science Museum, London

Sir John Pringle, detail of an engraving by W.H. Mote after a portrait by Sir Joshua Reynolds

Nevil Maskelyne, detail from an engraving by E. Scriven after a portrait by Vanderburgh.

James Cook, oil painting by John Webber; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

Copley Medal

British scientific award

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Related Topics:: science

Notable Honorees:: Charles Darwin; Benjamin Franklin; Albert Einstein; Michael Faraday

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Copley Medal, the most prestigious scientific award in the United Kingdom, given annually by the Royal Society of London “for outstanding achievements in research in any branch of science.”

The Copley Medal is named for Sir Godfrey Copley, 2nd Baronet (c. 1653–1709), a member of the Royal Society and longtime member of Parliament from Yorkshire who left a bequest of £100 to be used to fund experiments that would benefit the Society and further scientific knowledge. The first grant was awarded in 1731 to Stephen Gray, a self-made naturalist whose experiments and spectacular public demonstrations of electrical conduction were well known to the Society. In 1736 it was decided to use Copley’s bequest to pay for a gold medal that would be given annually as an honorary prize to the person whose work was most approved by the Society.

During the early years the focus of the Copley Medal was on important recent discoveries or experiments, but in 1831 the scope was broadened to honour any research deemed worthy by the Society, with no limit on the time period or on the scientist’s country of origin. The medal had already been given once to a foreigner—“Volta, of Pavia,” or Alessandro Volta, in 1794 (Benjamin Franklin had been given the medal in 1753, but at that time he was a British subject)—and since 1831 it has been awarded to a number of illustrious non-Britons, among them Hermann von Helmholtz (1873), Louis Pasteur (1874), Dmitri Mendeleev (1905), and Albert Einstein (1925). The medal’s domestic winners, ranging from Joseph Priestley (1772) through Charles Darwin (1864) to Stephen Hawking (2006), represent the depth, breadth, and durability of almost three centuries of British science.

The Copley Medal today is struck in silver gilt; the obverse bears a likeness of Sir Godfrey Copley, and the reverse shows the arms of the Royal Society. The award of the medal is accompanied by a gift of £25,000. Each year the award alternates between the physical and biological sciences. Nominations are reviewed and assessed by a committee made up of Royal Society fellows, who pass their recommendation to the Society’s governing council.

The recipients of the Copley Medal are listed in the table.

Copley Medal winners
	year	recipient	achievement*
*Based on official citation of the Royal Society.
	1731	Stephen Gray	For his new Electrical Experiments:—as an encouragement to him for the readiness he has always shown in obliging the Society with his discoveries and improvements in this part of Natural Knowledge.
	1732	Stephen Gray	For the Experiments he made for the year 1732.
	1733	not awarded
	1734	John Theophilus Desaguliers	In consideration of his several Experiments performed before the Society.
	1735	not awarded
	1736	John Theophilus Desaguliers	For his experiments made during the year.
	1737	John Belchier	For his Experiment to show the property of a Diet of Madder Root in dyeing the Bones of living animals of a red colour.
	1738	James Valoue	For his invention of an Engine for driving the Piles to make a Foundation for the Bridge to be erected at Westminster, the Model whereof had been shown to the Society.
	1739	Stephen Hales	For his Experiments towards the Discovery of Medicines for dissolving the Stone; and Preservatives for keeping Meat in long voyages at Sea.
	1740	Alexander Stuart	For his Lectures on Muscular Motion. As a further addition for his services to the Society in the care and pains he has taken therein.
	1741	John Theophilus Desaguliers	For his Experiments towards the discovery of the properties of Electricity. As an addition to his allowance (as Curator) for the present year.
	1742	Christopher Middleton	For the communication of his Observations in the attempt of discovering a North-West passage to the East Indies through Hudsons Bay.
	1743	Abraham Trembley	For his Experiments on the Polypus.
	1744	Henry Baker	For his curious Experiments relating to the Crystallization or Configuration of the minute particles of Saline Bodies dissolved in a menstruum.
	1745	William Watson	On account of the surprising discoveries in the phenomena of Electricity, exhibited in his late Experiments.
	1746	Benjamin Robins	On account of his curious Experiments for showing the resistance of the Air, and his rules for establishing his doctrine thereon for the motion of Projectiles.
	1747	Gowin Knight	On account of several very curious Experiments exhibited by him, both with Natural and Artificial Magnets.
	1748	James Bradley	On account of his very curious and wonderful discoveries in the apparent motion of the Fixed Stars, and the causes of such apparent motion.
	1749	John Harrison	On account of those very curious Instruments, invented and made by him, for the exact mensuration of Time.
	1750	George Edwards	On account of a very curious Book lately published by him, and intiyled, A Natural History of Birds, &c.—containing the Figures elegantly drawn, and illuminated in their proper colours, of 209 different Birds, and about 20 very rare Quadrupeds, Serpents, Fishes, and Insects.
	1751	John Canton	On account of his communicating to the Society, and exhibiting before them, his curious method of making Artificial Magnets without the use of Natural ones.
	1752	John Pringle	On account of his very curious and useful Experiments and Observations on Septic and Anti-septic Substances, communicated to the Society.
	1753	Benjamin Franklin	On account of his curious Experiments and Observations on Electricity.
	1754	William Lewis	For the many Experiments made by him on Platina, which tend to the discovery of the sophistication of gold:—which he would have entirely completed, but was obliged to put a stop to his further enquiries for want of materials.
	1755	John Huxham	For his many useful Experiments on Antimony, of which an account had been read to the Society.
	1756	not awarded
	1757	Charles Cavendish	On account of his very curious and useful invention of making Thermometers, showing respectively the greatest degrees of heat and cold which have happened at any time during the absence of the observer.
	1758	John Dollond	On account of his curious Experiments and Discoveries concerning the different refrangibility of the Rays of Light, communicated to the Society.
	1759	John Smeaton	On account of his curious Experiments concerning Water-wheels and Wind-mill Sails, communicated to the Society. For his experimental enquiry concerning the powers of water and wind in the moving of Mills.
	1760	Benjamin Wilson	For his many curious Experiments in Electricity, communicated to the Society within the year.
	1761	not awarded
	1762	not awarded
	1763	not awarded
	1764	John Canton	For his very ingenious and elegent Experiments in the Air Pump and Condensing Engine, to prove the Compressibility of Water, and some other Fluids.
	1765	not awarded
	1766	William Brownrigg	For an experimental enquiry into the Mineral Elastic Spirit, or Air, contained in Spa-Water; as well as into the Mephitic qualities of this Spirit.
	1766	Edward Delaval	For his Experiments and Observations on the agreement between the specific gravities of the several Metals, and their colours when united to glass, as well as those of their other preparations.
	1766	Henry Cavendish	For his Paper communicated this present year, containing his Experiments relating to Fixed Air.
	1767	John Ellis	For his Papers of the year 1767, On the animal nature of the Genus of Zoophytes called Corallina, and the Actinia Sociata, or Clustered Animal Flower, lately found on the sea coasts of the new-ceded Islands.
	1768	Peter Woulfe	For his Experiments on the Distillation of Acids, Volatile Alkalies, and other substances.
	1769	William Hewson	For his Two Papers, entitled, An Account of the Lymphatic System in Amphibious Animals,—and An Account of the Lymphatic System in Fish.
	1770	William Hamilton	For his Paper, entitled, An Account of a Journey to Mount Etna.
	1771	Matthew Raper	For his paper entitled, An Enquiry into the value of ancient Greek and Roman Money.
	1772	Joseph Priestley	On account of the many curious and useful Experiments contained in his observations on different kinds of Air, read at the Society in March, 1772, and printed in the Philosophical Transactions.
	1773	John Walsh	For his Paper on the Torpedo.
	1774	not awarded
	1775	Nevil Maskelyne	In consideration of his curious and laborious Observations on the Attraction of Mountains, made in Scotland,—on Schehallien.
	1776	James Cook	For his Paper, giving an account of the method he had taken to preserve the health of the crew of H.M. Ship the Resolution, during her late voyage round the world. Whose communication to the Society was of such importance to the public.
	1777	John Mudge	On account of his valuable Paper containing directions for making the best Composition for the metals of Reflecting Telescopes; together with a description of the process for grinding, polishing, and giving the best speculum the true parabolic form.
	1778	Charles Hutton	For his paper, entitled, The force of Fired Gunpowder, and the initial velocity of Cannon Balls, determined by Experiments.
	1779	not awarded
	1780	Samuel Vince	For his paper, entitled, An investigation of the Principles of Progressive and Rotatory Motion, printed in the Philosophical Transactions.
	1781	William Herschel	For the Communication of his Discovery of a new and singular Star; a discovery which does him particular honour, as, in all probability, this start has been for many years, perhaps ages, within the bounds of astronomic vision, and yet till now, eluded the most diligent researches of other observers.
	1782	Richard Kirwan	As a reward for the merit of his labours in the science of Chemistry. For his chemical analyses of Salts.
	1783	John Goodricke	For his discovery of the Period of the Variation of Light in the Star Algol.
	1783	Thomas Hutchins	For his Experiments to ascertain the point of Mercurial Congelation.
	1784	Edward Waring	For his Mathematical Communications to the Society. For his Paper On the Summation of Series, whose general term is a determinate function of z the distance from the first term of the series.
	1785	William Roy	For his Measurement of a Base on Hounslow Heath.
	1786	not awarded
	1787	John Hunter	For his three Papers,—On the Ovaria, On the identity of the dog, wolf, and jackall species, and On the anatomy of Whales, printed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1787.
	1788	Charles Blagden	For his two Papers on Congelation, printed in the last (78th) volume of the Philosophical Transactions.
	1789	William Morgan	For his two Papers on the values of Reversions and Survivorships, printed in the two last volumes of the Philosophical Transactions.
	1790	not awarded
	1791	James Rennell	For his Paper on the Rate of Travelling as performed by Camels, printed in the last (81st) volume of the Philosophical Transactions.
	1791	John Andrew de Luc (Jean André Deluc)	For his Improvements in Hygrometry.
	1792	Benjamin Thompson, count von Rumford	For his various Papers on the Properties and Communication of Heat.
	1793	not awarded
	1794	Alessandro Volta	For his several Communications explanatory of certain Experiments published by Professor Galvani.
	1795	Jesse Ramsden	For his various inventions and improvements in the construction of the Instruments for the Trigonometrical measurements carried on by the late Major General Roy, and by Lieut. Col. Williams and his associates.
	1796	George Attwood	For his Paper on the construction and analysis of geometrical propositions determining the positions assumed by homogeneal bodies which float freely, and at rest; and also determining the Stability of Ships and other floating bodies.
	1797	not awarded
	1798	George Shuckburgh Evelyn	For his various Communications printed in the Philosophical Transactions.
	1798	Charles Hatchett	For his Chemical Communications printed in the Philosophical Transactions.
	1799	John Hellins	For his improved Solution of a problem in Physical Astronomy, &c. printed in the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1798; and his other Mathematical Papers.
	1800	Edward Howard	For his Paper on a New Fulminating Mercury.
	1801	Astley Paston Cooper	For his Papers—on the effects which take place from the destruction of the Membrana Tympani of the Ear; with an account of an operation for the removal of a particular species of Deafness.
	1802	William Hyde Wollaston	For his various Papers printed in the Philosophical Transactions.
	1803	Richard Chenevix	For his various Chemical Papers printed in the Philosophical Transactions.
	1804	Smithson Tennant	For his various Chemical Discoveries communicated to the Society, and printed in several volumes of the Philosophical Transactions.
	1805	Humphry Davy	For his various Communications published in the Philosophical Transactions.
	1806	Thomas Andrew Knight	For his various Papers on Vegetation, printed in the Philosophical Transactions.
	1807	Everard Home	For his various Papers on Anatomy and Physiology, printed in the Philosophical Transactions.
	1808	William Henry	For his various papers communicated to the society, and printed in the Philosophical Transactions.
	1809	Edward Troughton	For the Account of his Method of dividing Astronomical Instruments, printed in the last volume of the Philosophical Transactions.
	1810	not awarded
	1811	Benjamin Collins Brodie	For his Papers printed in the Philosophical Transactions. On the influence of the Brain on the action of the Heart, and the generation of Animal Heat; and on the different modes in which death is brought on by certain Vegetable Poisons.
	1812	not awarded
	1813	William Thomas Brande	For his Communications concerning the Alcohol contained in Fermented Liquors and other Papers, printed in the Philosophical Transactions.
	1814	James Ivory	For his various Mathematical Contributions printed in the Philosophical Transactions.
	1815	David Brewster	For his Paper on the Polarization of Light by Reflection from Transparent Bodies.
	1816	not awarded
	1817	Henry Kater	For his Experiments on the Pendulum.
	1818	Robert Seppings	For his Papers on the construction of Ships of War, printed in the Philosophical Transactions.
	1819	not awarded
	1820	Hans Christian Ørsted	For his Electro-magnetic Discoveries.
	1821	Edward Sabine	For his various Communications to the Royal Society relating to his researches made in the late Expedition to the Arctic Regions.
	1821	John Herschel	For his Papers printed in the Philosophical Transactions.
	1822	William Buckland	For his Paper on the Fossil Teeth and Bones discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale.
	1823	John Pond	For his various Communications to the Royal Society.
	1824	John Brinkley	For his various Communications to the Royal Society.
	1825	François Arago	For the Discovery of the Magnetic Properties of substances not containing Iron. For the Discovery of the power of various bodies, principally metallic, to receive magnetic impressions, in the same, though in a more evanescent manner than malleable Iron, and in an infinitely less intense degree.
	1825	Peter Barlow	For his various Communications on the subject of Magnetism.
	1826	James South	For his observations of Double Stars, and his Paper on the Discordances between the Suns observed and computed Right Ascensions, published in the Transactions of the Society. For his Paper of Observations of the Apparent Distances and Positions of Four Hundred and Fifty-eight Double and Triple Stars, published in the present volume (1826, Part 1.) of the Transactions.
	1827	William Prout	For his Paper, entitled, On the ultimate Composition of simple alimentary substances, with some preliminary remarks on the analysis of organized bodies in general.
	1827	Henry Foster	For his magnetic and other observations made during the Arctic expedition to Port Bowen.
	1828	not awarded
	1829	not awarded
	1830	not awarded
	1831	George Biddell Airy	For his Papers, On the principle of the construction of the Achromatic Eye-pieces of Telescopes,—On the Spherical Aberration of the Eye-pieces of Telescopes, and for other Papers on Optical Subjects in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.
	1832	Michael Faraday	For his discovery of Magneto-Electricity as detailed in his Experimental Researches in Electricity, published in the Philosophical Transactions for the present year.
	1832	Siméon-Denis Poisson	For his work entitled, Nouvelle Theorie de l'Action Capillaire.
	1833	not awarded
	1834	Giovanni Plana	For his work entitled, Theorie du Mouvement de la Lune.
	1835	William Snow Harris	For his experimental investigations of the force of electricity of high intensity contained in the Philosophical Transactions of 1834.
	1836	Jöns Jacob Berzelius	For his systematic application of the doctrine of definite proportions to the analysis of mineral bodies, as contained in his Nouveau Systeme de Mineralogie, and in other of his works.
	1836	Francis Kiernan	For his discoveries relating to the structure of the liver, as detailed in his paper communicated to the Royal Society, and published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1833.
	1837	Antoine-César Becquerel	For his various memoirs on the subject of electricity, published in the Memoires de l'academie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de France, and particularly for those on the production of crystals of metallic sulphurets and of sulphur, by the long-continued action of electricity of very low tension, and published in the tenth volume of those Memoires.
	1837	John Frederic Daniell	For his two papers on voltaic combinations published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1836.
	1838	Carl Friedrich Gauss	For his inventions and mathematical researches in magnetism.
	1838	Michael Faraday	For his researches in specific electrical induction.
	1839	Robert Brown	For his discoveries during a series of years, on the subject of vegetable impregnation.
	1840	Justus von Liebig	For his discoveries in organic chemistry, and particularly for his development of the composition and theory of organic radicals.
	1840	Charles-François Sturm	For his "Memoire sur la Resolution des Equations Numeriques," published in the Memoires des Savans Etrangers for 1835.
	1841	Georg Simon Ohm	For his researches into the laws of electric currents contained in various memoirs published in Schweiggers Journal, Poggendorffs Annalen and in a separate work entitled Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet.
	1842	James MacCullagh	For his researches connected with the wave theory of light, contained in the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy.
	1843	Jean-Baptiste-André Dumas	For his late valuable researches in organic chemistry, particularly those contained in a series of memoirs on chemical types and the doctrine of substitution, and also for his elaborate investigations of the atomic weights of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and other elements.
	1844	Carlo Matteucci	For his various researches in animal electricity.
	1845	Theodor Schwann	For his physiological researches on the development of animal & vegetable textures, published in his work entitled Mikroskopische Untersuchungen uber die Uebereinstimmung in der Struktur u. dem Wachsthun der Thiese u. Bflanzen.
	1846	Urbain-Jean-Joseph Le Verrier	For his investigations relative to the disturbances of Uranus by which he proved the existence and predicted the place of the new Planet; the Council considering such prediction confirmed as it was by the immediate discovery of the Planet to be one of the proudest triumphs of modern analysis applied to the Newtonian Theory of Gravitation.
	1847	John Herschel	For his work entitled Results of Astronomical Observations made during the years 1834, 1835, 1836, 1837 and 1838, at the Cape of Good Hope; being a completion of a telescopic survey of the whole surface of the visible heavens, commenced in 1825.
	1848	John Couch Adams	For his investigations relative to the disturbances of Uranus, and for his application of the inverse problem of perturbations thereto.
	1849	Roderick Impey Murchison	For the eminent services he has rendered to geological science during many years of active observation in several parts of Europe; and especially for the establishment of that classification of the older Palaeozoic deposits designated the Silurian System, as set forth in the two works entitled The Silurian System founded on Geological Researches in England, and The Geology of Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains.
	1850	Peter Andreas Hansen	For his researches in physical astronomy.
	1851	Richard Owen	On account of his important discoveries in comparative anatomy & palaeontology, contained in the Philosophical Transactions and numerous other works.
	1852	Alexander von Humboldt	For his eminent services in terrestrial physics, during a series of years.
	1853	Heinrich Wilhelm Dove	For his work on the distribution of heat over the surface of the Earth.
	1854	Johannes Peter Müller	For his important contributions to different branches of physiology and comparative anatomy, and particularly for his researches on the embryology of the Echinodermata, contained in a series of memoirs published in the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin.
	1855	Léon Foucault	For his various researches in experimental physics.
	1856	Henry Milne-Edwards	For his researches in comparative anatomy and zoology.
	1857	Michel-Eugène Chevreul	For his researches in organic chemistry, particularly on the composition of the fats, and for his researches on the contrast of coulours.
	1858	Charles Lyell	For his various researches and writings by which he has contributed to the advance of geology.
	1859	Wilhelm Eduard Weber	For the investigations contained in his Maasbestimmungen and other researches in electricity, magnetism, acoustics, &c.
	1860	Robert Wilhelm Bunsen	For his researches on cacodyls, gaseous analysis, the Voltaire phenomena of Iceland; and other researches.
	1861	Louis Agassiz	For his eminent researches in palaeontology and other branches of science, and particularly for his great works the Poissons Fossiles, and his Poissons du Vieux Gres Rouge d'Ecosse.
	1862	Thomas Graham	For three memoirs of the diffusion of liquids, published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1850 and 1851; for a memoir on osmotic force in the Philosophical Transactions for 1854; and particularly for a paper on liquid diffusion applied to analysis, including a distinction of compounds into colloids & crystalloids published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1861.
	1863	Adam Sedgwick	For his original observations and discoveries in the geology of the Palaeozoic Series of rocks, and more especially for his determination of the characters of the Devonian System, by observations of the order of superposition of the Killas rocks & their fossils in Devonshire.
	1864	Charles Darwin	For his important researches in geology, zoology, and botanical physiology.
	1865	Michel Chasles	For his historical and original researches in pure geometry.
	1866	Julius Plücker	For his researches in analytical geometry, magnetism, & spectral analysis.
	1867	Karl Ernst von Baer	For his discoveries in embryology and comparative anatomy, and for his contributions to the philosophy of zoology.
	1868	Charles Wheatstone	For his researches in acoustics, optics, electricity and magnetism.
	1869	Henri-Victor Regnault	For the second volume of his Relation des Experiences pour determiner les lois et les donnees physiques necessaries au calcul des machines a feu, including his elaborate investigations on the specific heat of gases and vapours, and various papers on the elastic force of vapours.
	1870	James Prescott Joule	For his experimental researches on the dynamical theory of heat.
	1871	Julius Robert von Mayer	For his researches on the mechanics of heat; including essays on:—1. The force of inorganic nature. 2. Organic motion in connection with nutrition. 3. Fever. 4. Celestial dynamics. 5. The mechanical equivalent of heat.
	1872	Friedrich Wöhler	For his numerous contributions to the science of chemistry, and more especially for his researches on the products of the decomposition of cyanogens by ammonia; on the derivatives of uric acid; on the benzoyl series; on boron, silicon, & their compounds; and on meteoric stones.
	1873	Hermann von Helmholtz	For his researches in physics and physiology.
	1874	Louis Pasteur	For his researches on fermentation and on pelerine.
	1875	August Wilhelm von Hofmann	For his numerous contributions to the science of chemistry, and especially for his researches on the derivatives of ammonia.
	1876	Claude Bernard	For his numerous contributions to the science of physiology.
	1877	James Dwight Dana	For his biological, geological, and mineralogical investigations, carried on through half a century, and for the valuable works in which his conclusions and discoveries have been published.
	1878	Jean-Baptiste Boussingault	For his long-continued and important researches and discoveries in agricultural chemistry.
	1879	Rudolf Clausius	For his well-known researches upon heat.
	1880	James Joseph Sylvester	For his long continued investigations & discoveries in mathematics.
	1881	Charles-Adolphe Wurtz	For his discovery of the organic ammonias, the glycols, and other investigations which have exercised considerable influence on the progress of chemistry.
	1882	Arthur Cayley	For his numerous profound and comprehensive researches in pure mathematics.
	1883	William Thomson, Baron Kelvin	For (1) his discovery of the law of the universal dissipation of energy; (2) his researches and eminent services in physics, both experimental & mathematical, especially in the theory of electricity and thermodynamics.
	1884	Carl F.W. Ludwig	For his investigations in physiology, and the great services which he has rendered to physiological science.
	1885	August Kekulé	For his researches in organic chemistry.
	1886	Franz Ernst Neumann	For his researches in theoretical optics and electro-dynamics.
	1887	Joseph Dalton Hooker	For his services to botanical science as an investigator, author, and traveller.
	1888	T.H. Huxley	For his investigations on the morphology and histology of vertebrate and invertebrate animals, and for his services to biological science in general during many past years.
	1889	George Salmon	For his various papers on subjects of pure mathematics, and for the valuable mathematical treatises of which he is the author.
	1890	Simon Newcomb	For his contributions to the progress of gravitational astronomy.
	1891	Stanislao Cannizzaro	For his contributions to chemical philosophy especially for his application of Avogadro's theory.
	1892	Rudolf Virchow	For his investigations in pathology, pathological anatomy, and prehistoric archaeology.
	1893	George Gabriel Stokes	For his researches and discoveries in physical science.
	1894	Edward Frankland	For his eminent services to theoretical & applied chemistry.
	1895	Karl Weierstrass	For his investigations in pure mathematics.
	1896	Karl Gegenbaur	For his life-long researches in comparative anatomy in all branches of the animal kingdom. etc., etc.
	1897	Rudolf Albert von Kölliker	In recognition of his important work in embryology, comparative anatomy, and physiology, and especially for his eminence as a histologist.
	1898	William Huggins	For his researches in spectrum analysis applied to the heavenly bodies.
	1899	John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh	In recognition of his contributions to physical science.
	1900	Marcellin Berthelot	For his brilliant services to chemical science.
	1901	J. Willard Gibbs	For his contributions to mathematical physics.
	1902	Joseph Lister, Baron Lister	In recognition of the value of his physiological and pathological researches in regard to their influence on the modern practice of surgery.
	1903	Eduard Suess	For his eminent geological services, & especially for the original researches & conclusions published in his great work Das Antlitz der Erde.
	1904	William Crookes	For his long-continued researches in spectroscopic chemistry, on electrical & mechanical phenomena in highly-rarefied gases, on radio-active phenomena, and other subjects.
	1905	Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev	For his contributions to chemical and physical science.
	1906	Élie Metchnikoff	On the ground of the importance of his work in zoology and in pathology.
	1907	A.A. Michelson	On the ground of his investigations in optics.
	1908	Alfred Russel Wallace	On the ground of the great value of his numerous contributions to natural history, and of the part he took in working out the theory of the origin of species by natural selection.
	1909	George William Hill	On the ground of his researches in mathematical astronomy.
	1910	Francis Galton	On the ground of his researches in heredity.
	1911	George Darwin	On the ground of his researches on tidal theory, the figures of the planets, and allied subjects.
	1912	Felix Klein	On the ground of his researches in mathematics.
	1913	Edwin Ray Lankester	On the ground of the high scientific value of the researches in zoology carried out by him.
	1914	J.J. Thomson	On the ground of his discoveries in physical science.
	1915	Ivan Petrovich Pavlov	On the ground of his investigations in the physiology of digestion and of the higher centres of the nervous system.
	1916	James Dewar	For his important investigations in physical chemistry, more especially his researches on the liquefaction of gases.
	1917	Émile Roux	On the ground of his eminence as a bacteriologist, and as a pioneer in serum therapy.
	1918	Hendrik Antoon Lorentz	On the ground of his distinguished researches in mathematical physics.
	1919	William Maddock Bayliss	On the ground of his researches in general physiology & biophysics.
	1920	Horace Brown	On the ground of his work on the chemistry of carbohydrates, &c.
	1921	Joseph Larmor	For his researches in mathematical physics.
	1922	Ernest Rutherford	For his researches in radio activity & atomic structure.
	1923	Horace Lamb	For his researches in mathematical physics.
	1924	Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer	For the valuable work he has done in physiology and histology and the position he now occupies as a leader in these sciences.
	1925	Albert Einstein	For his theory of relativity and his contributions to the quantum theory.
	1926	Frederick Gowland Hopkins	For his distinguished and fruitful work in biochemistry.
	1927	Charles Sherrington	For his distinguished work on neurology.
	1928	Charles Algernon Parsons	For his contributions to engineering science.
	1929	Max Planck	For his contributions to theoretical physics and especially as the originator of the quantum theory.
	1930	William Bragg	For his distinguished contributions to crystallography and radioactivity.
	1931	Arthur Schuster	For his distinguished researches in optics and terrestrial magnetism.
	1932	George Ellery Hale	For his distinguished work on the solar magnetic phenomena and for his eminence as a scientific engineer, especially in connexion with Mount Wilson Observatory.
	1933	Theobald Smith	For his original research and observation on diseases of animals and man.
	1934	John Scott Haldane	In recognition of his discoveries in human physiology and of their application to medicine, mining, diving and engineering.
	1935	C.T.R. Wilson	For his work on the use of clouds in advancing our knowledge of atoms and their properties.
	1936	Arthur Evans	In recognition of his pioneer work in Crete, particularly his contributions to the history and civilization of its Minoan age.
	1937	Henry Dale	In recognition of his important contributions to physiology and pharmacology, particularly in relation to the nervous and neuro-muscular systems.
	1938	Niels Bohr	In recognition of his distinguished work in the development of the quantum theory of atomic structure.
	1939	Thomas Hunt Morgan	For his establishment of the modern science of genetics which had revolutionized our understanding, not only of heredity, but of the mechanism and nature of evolution.
	1940	Paul Langevin	For his pioneer work on the electron theory of magnetism, his fundamental contributions to discharge of electricity in gases, and his important work in many branches of theoretical physics.
	1941	Thomas Lewis	For his clinical and experimental investigations upon the mammalian heart.
	1942	Robert Robinson	For his research work of outstanding originality and brilliance which has influenced the whole field of organic chemistry.
	1943	Joseph Barcroft	For his distinguished work on respiration and the respiratory function of the blood.
	1944	Geoffrey Ingram Taylor	For his many contributions to aerodynamics, hydrodynamics, and the structure of metals, which have had a profound influence on the advance of physical science and its applications.
	1945	Oswald Avery	For his success in introducing chemical methods in the study of immunity against infective diseases.
	1946	Edgar Douglas Adrian	For his distinguished researches on the fundamental nature of nervous activity, and recently on the localization of certain nervous functions.
	1947	Godfrey Harold Hardy	For his distinguished part in the development of mathematical analysis in England during the last thirty years.
	1948	A.V. Hill	For his distinguished researches on myothermal problems and on biophysical phenomena in nerve and other tissues.
	1949	Georg Charles von Hevesy	For his distinguished work on the chemistry of radioactive elements and especially for his development of the radioactive tracer techniques in the investigation of biological processes.
	1950	James Chadwick	For his outstanding work in nuclear physics and in the development of atomic energy, especially for his discovery of the neutron.
	1951	David Keilin	For his fundamental researches in the fields of protozoology, entomology and the biochemistry of enzymes.
	1952	P.A.M. Dirac	In recognition of his remarkable contributions to relativistic dynamics of a particle in quantum mechanics.
	1953	Albert Jan Kluyver	For his distinguished contributions of a fundamental character to the science of microbiology.
	1954	Edmund Taylor Whittaker	For his distinguished contributions to both pure and applied mathematics and to theoretical physics.
	1955	Ronald Aylmer Fisher	In recognition of his numerous and distinguished contributions to developing the theory and application of statistics for making quantitative a vast field of biology.
	1956	Patrick M.S. Blackett	In recognition of his outstanding studies of cosmic ray showers and heavy mesons and in the field of palaeomagnetism.
	1957	Howard Walter Florey	In recognition of his distinguished contributions to experimental pathology and medicine.
	1958	John Edensor Littlewood	In recognition of his distinguished contributions to many branches of analysis, including Tauberian theory, the Riemann zeta function, and non-linear differential equations.
	1959	Macfarlane Burnet	In recognition of his distinguished contributions to knowledge of viruses and of immunology.
	1960	Harold Jeffreys	In recognition of his distinguished work in many branches of geophysics, and also in the theory of probability and astronomy.
	1961	Hans Adolf Krebs	In recognition of his distinguished contributions to biochemistry, in particular his work on the ornithine, tricarboxylic acid and glyoxylate cycles.
	1962	Cyril Hinshelwood	In recognition of his distinguished researches in the field of chemical kinetics, including the study of biological reaction mechanisms, and of his outstanding contributions to natural philosophy.
	1963	Paul Fildes	In recognition of his pioneering contributions to bacteriology.
	1964	Sydney Chapman	In recognition of his theoretical contributions to terrestrial and interplanetary magnetism, the ionosphere and the aurora borealis.
	1965	Alan Hodgkin	In recognition of his discovery of the mechanism of excitation and impulse conduction in nerve, and his outstanding leadership in the development of neurophysiology.
	1966	Lawrence Bragg	In recognition of his distinguished contributions to the development of methods of structural determination by X-ray diffraction.
	1967	Bernard Katz	In recognition of his distinguished contributions to knowledge of the fundamental processes involved in transmission across the neuromuscular junction.
	1968	Tadeus Reichstein	In recognition of his distinguished work on the chemistry of vitamin C and his authoritative studies of the cortico-steroids.
	1969	Peter Brian Medawar	In recognition of his distinguished studies of tissue transplantation and immunological tolerance.
	1970	Alexander Robertus Todd	In recognition of his outstanding contributions to both the analytical and synthetic chemistry of natural products of diverse types.
	1971	Norman Wingate Pirie	In recognition of his distinguished contributions to biochemistry and especially for his elucidation of the nature of plant viruses.
	1972	Nevill F. Mott	In recognition of his original contributions over a long period to atomic and solid state physics.
	1973	Andrew Fielding Huxley	In recognition of his outstanding studies on the mechanisms of the nerve impulse and of activation of muscular contraction.
	1974	William Hodge	In recognition of his pioneering work in algebraic geometry, notably in his theory of harmonic integrals.
	1975	Francis Crick	In recognition of his elucidation of the structure of DNA and his continuing contribution to molecular biology.
	1976	Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin	In recognition of her outstanding work on the structures of complex molecules, particularly Penicillin, vitamin B12 and insulin.
	1977	Frederick Sanger	In recognition of his distinguished work on the chemical structure of proteins and his studies on the sequences of nucleic acids.
	1978	Robert Burns Woodward	In recognition of his masterly contributions to the synthesis of complex natural products and his discovery of the importance of orbital symmetry.
	1979	Max Ferdinand Perutz	In recognition of his distinguished contributions to molecular biology through his own studies of the structure and biological activity of haemoglobin and his leadership in the development of the subject.
	1980	Derek Barton	In recognition of his distinguished contributions to a wide range of problems in structural and synthetic organic chemistry and, in particular, his introduction of conformational analysis into stereochemistry.
	1981	Peter Dennis Mitchell	In recognition of his distinguished contribution to biology in his formulation and development of the chemiosmotic theory of energy transduction.
	1982	John Cornforth	In recognition of his distinguished research on the stereochemically-controlled synthesis and biosynthesis of biologically important molecules.
	1983	Rodney Robert Porter	In recognition of his elucidation of the structure of immunoglobulins and of the reactions involved in activating the complement system of proteins.
	1984	Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar	In recognition of his distinguished work on theoretical physics, including stellar structure, theory of radiation, hydrodynamic stability and relativity.
	1985	Aaron Klug	In recognition of his outstanding contributions to our understanding of complex biological structures and the methods used for determining them.
	1986	Rudolf Ernst Peierls	In recognition of his fundamental contributions to a very wide range of theoretical physics, and signal advances in proposing the probable existence of nuclear chain reactions in fissile materials.
	1987	Robert Hill	In recognition of his pioneering contributions to the understanding of the nature and mechanism of the main pathway of electron transport in photosynthesis.
	1988	Michael Francis Atiyah	In recognition of his fundamental contributions to a wide range of topics in geometry, topology, analysis and theoretical physics.
	1989	César Milstein	In recognition of his outstanding contributions to immunology, in particular to the discovery of monoclonal antibodies and to the understanding of the role of somatic mutations in the maturation of the immune response.
	1990	Abdus Salam	In recognition of his work on the symmetries of the laws of nature, and especially the unification of the electromagnetic and weak forces.
	1991	Sydney Brenner	In recognition of his many contributions to molecular genetics and developmental biology, and his recent role in the Human Genome mapping project.
	1992	George Porter	In recognition of his contributions to fundamental understanding of fast photochemical and photophysical processes and their role in chemistry and biology.
	1993	James Watson	In recognition of his tireless pursuit of DNA, from the elucidation of its structure to the social and medical implications of the sequencing of the human genome.
	1994	Charles Frank	In recognition of his fundamental contribution to the theory of crystal morphology, in particular to the source of dislocations and their consequences in interfaces and crystal growth; to fundamental understanding of liquid crystals and the concept of disclination; and to the extension of crystallinity concepts to aperiodic crystals.
	1995	F.J. Fenner	In recognition of his contribution to animal virology with special emphasis on the pox and myxomatosis viruses and their relationship with the host in causing disease.
	1996	Alan Cottrell	In recognition of his contribution to the understanding of mechanical properties of materials and related topics through his pioneering studies on crystal plasticity, dislocation impurity interactions, fracture and irradiation effects.
	1997	Hugh Esmor Huxley	In recognition of his pioneering work on the structure of muscle and on the molecular mechanisms of muscle contraction, providing solutions to one of the great problems in physiology.
	1998	James Lighthill	In recognition of his profound contributions to many fields within fluid mechanics including important aspects of the interaction of sound and fluid flow and numerous other contributions which have had practical applications in aircraft engine design.
	1999	John Maynard Smith	In recognition of his seminal contributions to evolutionary biology, including his experimental work on sexual selection, his important contributions to our understanding of ageing, his introduction of game theoretical methods for the analysis of complex evolutionary scenarios and his research into molecular evolution, both through his classic work on genetic hitchhiking, and with his more recent, ongoing work on bacterial population growth.
	2000	Alan Rushton Battersby	In recognition of his pioneering work in elucidating the detailed biosynthetic pathways to all the major families of plant alkaloids.
	2001	Jacques Francis Albert Pierre Miller	For his work on the immunological function of the thymus and of T cells, which has revolutionised the science of immunology.
	2002	John A. Pople	For his development of computational methods in quantum chemistry. His work transformed density functional theory into a powerful theoretical tool for chemistry, chemical physics and biology.
	2003	John Gurdon	For his unique range of groundbreaking discoveries in the fields of cell and developmental biology.
	2004	Harold W. Kroto	In recognition of his seminal contributions to understanding the fundamental dynamics of carbon chain molecules, leading to the detection of these species (polyynes) in the interstellar medium by radioastronomy, and thence to the genesis of a new era in carbon science.
	2005	Paul M. Nurse	For his contributions to cell biology in general, and to the elucidation of the control of cell division.
	2006	Stephen Hawking	For his outstanding contribution to theoretical physics and theoretical cosmology.
	2007	Robert May	For his seminal studies of interactions within and among biological populations that have reshaped our understanding of how species, communities and entire ecosystems respond to natural or human created disturbance.
	2008	Roger Penrose	For his beautiful and original insights into many areas of mathematics and mathematical physics.
	2009	Martin J. Evans	For his seminal work on embryonic stem cells in mice, which revolutionised the field of genetics.
	2010	David Cox	For his seminal contributions to the theory and applications of statistics.
	2010	Tomas Lindahl	For his seminal contributions to the understanding of the biochemistry of DNA repair.
	2011	Dan McKenzie	For his seminal contributions to the understanding of geological and geophysical phenomena including tectonic plates.
	2012	John E. Walker	For his groundbreaking work on bioenergetics, discovering the mechanism of ATP synthesis in the mitochondrion.
	2013	Andre Geim	For his numerous scientific contributions and, in particular, for initiating research on two-dimensional atomic crystals and their artificial heterostructures.
	2014	Alec Jeffreys	For his pioneering work on variation and mutation in the human genome.
	2015	Peter Higgs	For his fundamental contribution to particle physics with his theory explaining the origin of mass in elementary particles, confirmed by the experiments at the Large Hadron Collider.
	2016	Richard Henderson	For his fundamental and revolutionary contributions to the development of electron microscopy of biological materials, enabling their atomic structure to be deduced.
	2017	Andrew Wiles	For his proof of Fermat's last theorem, which is one of the most important mathematical achievements of the 20th century.
	2018	Jeffrey I. Gordon	For his contributions to understanding the role of gut microbial communities to human health and disease.
	2019	John B. Goodenough	For his exceptional contributions to the science and technology of materials, including his discovery that led to rechargeable lithium batteries.
	2020	Alan Fersht	For developing and applying the methods of protein engineering to provide descriptions of protein folding pathways at atomic resolution.
	2021	Jocelyn Bell Burnell	For her work on the discovery of pulsars, one of the major astronomical advances of the 20th century.
	2022	Oxford-AstraZeneca Vaccine Team	For rapidly developing and deploying a COVID-19 vaccine.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by Erik Gregersen.