1 of 2

2 of 2

In the 1970s and ’80s, forested areas in central Europe, southern Scandinavia, and eastern North America showed alarming signs of forest dieback and tree mortality. A 1993 survey in 27 European countries revealed air pollution damage or mortality in 23 percent of the 100,000 trees surveyed. It is likely that the dieback was the result of many factors, including acid deposition (e.g., soil acidification and loss of buffering capacity, mobilization of toxic aluminum, direct effects of acid on foliage), exposure to ground-level ozone, possible excess fertilization from the deposition of nitrogen compounds (such as nitrates, ammonium, and ammonia compounds), and general stress caused by a combination of these factors. Once a tree is in a weakened condition, it is more likely to succumb to other environmental stressors such as drought, insect infestation, and infection by pathogens. The areas of forest dieback were often found to be associated with regions with low buffering capacity where damage to aquatic ecosystems due to acid deposition was also occurring.

Acid deposition has been implicated in the alteration of soil chemistry and the decline of several tree species through both direct and indirect means. Poorly buffered soils are particularly susceptible to acidification because they lack significant amounts of base cations (positively charged ions), which neutralize acidity. Calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium, which are the base cations that account for most of the acid-neutralizing capacity of soils, are derived from the weathering of rocks and from wet and dry deposition. Some of these base cations (such as calcium and magnesium) are also secondary plant nutrients that are necessary for proper plant growth. The supply of these base cations declines as they neutralize the acids present in wet and dry deposition and are leached from the soils. Thus, a landscape formerly rich in base cations can become acid-sensitive when soil-formation processes are slow and base cations are not replaced through weathering or deposition processes.

Soil acidification can also occur where deposition of ammonia (NH₃) and ammonium (NH₄⁺) is high. Ammonia and ammonium deposition leads to the production of H⁺ (which results in acidification) when these chemicals are converted to nitrate (NO₃⁻) by bacteria in a process called nitrification:

NH₃ + O₂ → NO₂⁻ + 3H⁺ + 2e⁻

NO₂⁻ + H₂O → NO₃⁻ + 2H⁺ + 2e⁻

More From Britannica

hydrosphere: Acid rain

The sources of NH₃ and NH₄⁺ are largely agricultural activities, especially livestock (chickens, hogs, and cattle) production. Around 80 percent of NH₃ emissions in the United States and Europe come from the agricultural sector. The evaporation or volatilization of animal wastes releases NH₃ into the atmosphere. This process often results in the deposition of ammonia near the emission source. However, NH₃ can be converted to particulate ammonium that may be transported and deposited as wet and dry deposition hundreds of kilometres away from the emission source.

Besides negatively altering soil chemistry, acid deposition has been shown to affect some tree species directly. Red spruce (Picea rubens) trees found at higher elevations in the eastern United States are harmed by acids leaching calcium from the cell membranes in their needles, making the needles more susceptible to damage from freezing during winter. The damage is often greatest in mountainous regions, because these areas often receive more acid deposition than lower areas and the winter environment is more extreme. Mountainous regions are subjected to highly acidic cloud and fog water along with other environmental stresses. In addition, red spruce can be damaged by the increased concentration of toxic aluminum in the soil. These processes can reduce nutrient uptake by the tree roots. Sugar maple (Acer saccharum) populations are also declining in the northeastern United States and parts of eastern Canada. High soil aluminum and low soil calcium concentrations resulting from acid deposition have been implicated in this decline. Other trees in this region that are negatively affected by acidic deposition include aspen (Populus), birch (Betula), and ash (Fraxinus).

Some scientists argue that acid deposition may influence the geology of some regions. A 2018 study examining the 2009 Jiweishan landslide in southwest China proposed that acid rain may have weakened a layer of shale that separated the rock layers containing an aquifer above from the rock layers containing a mine below, which caused a large mass of rock to slip off the mountainside and kill 74 people.