psychotropic drug
psychotropic drug, in pharmacology, any agent that induces changes in awareness, behaviour, mood, perception, or sensation. Most psychotropic drugs are classified as one of five different types: antianxiety agents, antidepressants, antipsychotics, hypnotics, or mood-stabilizing drugs. Psychotropic drugs are used to treat a broad array of conditions, from sleep disorders and pain to anxiety, depression, and psychosis.
Psychotropic drugs exert their actions by either mimicking the effects, blocking the activity, or altering the storage, release, or uptake of neurotransmitters (signaling molecules in the brain that relay information between neurons and between neurons and other types of cells). Some psychotropic drugs restore the balance of neurotransmitters by preventing their breakdown once released from neurons. Examples of neurotransmitters that can be affected by psychotropic drugs include dopamine, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), norepinephrine, and serotonin.
The five main classes of psychotropic drugs are distinguished primarily by the effects that result from their actions on neurotransmitters. Many antianxiety drugs, for example, are benzodiazepine compounds (e.g., clonazepam, diazepam), which bind to neurons at locations near ion channels that admit chloride ions into the cell and also near sites of action for GABA. GABA exerts inhibitory actions on certain neurons and thereby reduces the transmission of nerve impulses; benzodiazepines generally enhance the effects of GABA, resulting in a calming effect. Other antianxiety drugs have similar physiological effects but do not act on GABA. Buspirone, for example, is thought to be a partial agonist of receptors for serotonin, the activity of which is associated with mood changes.
Antidepressants comprise a diverse group of agents. They are divided into multiple classes, among them tricyclic antidepressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (NRIs), serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), and atypical antidepressants, which possess unique structural features and mechanisms of action. These drugs act by restoring chemical imbalances in neurotransmitter levels in the brain, thereby mitigating symptoms of depression, which result from reduced quantities or reduced activity of the monoamine neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine). All antidepressants achieve their effects by inhibiting the body’s reabsorption or inactivation of monoamine neurotransmitters, thus allowing the neurotransmitters to accumulate and remain in contact with their receptors for prolonged periods of time; these changes are thought to be important in elevating mood and relieving depression.
Antipsychotic drugs are subdivided into typical and atypical antipsychotics. Typical antipsychotic drugs, sometimes also referred to as first-generation antipsychotics, work by blocking dopamine receptors; examples include chlorpromazine, fluphenazine, and haloperidol. The mechanism of action of atypical antipsychotics, sometimes called second-generation antipsychotics, is less clear, though they seem to inhibit various neurotransmitters, particularly acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, or serotonin. Examples of atypical antipsychotics include aripiprazole, clozapine, and iloperidone.
Drugs used to stabilize mood work in a variety of ways. Lithium, for example, reduces the excitatory activity of dopamine and glutamate and increases the inhibitory activity of GABA. Carbamazepine, an anticonvulsant drug, modulates inhibitory effects of neurons by altering the activity of voltage-gated ion channels, including those involved in the conductance of calcium, potassium, and sodium. Mood-stabilizing drugs are often used in the treatment of depression and bipolar disorder.
Stimulant-type psychotropic drugs generally work by increasing levels of catecholamine neurotransmitters (e.g., dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine); this results in increased activity at the receptors for these neurotransmitters. Stimulants prescribed as psychotropic drugs are specifically used to treat attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder.
Side effects of psychotropic drugs vary markedly. For instance, whereas benzodiazepine drugs can be habit-forming and potentially cause dependence and withdrawal symptoms, buspirone has a much lower potential for abuse and is not associated with withdrawal phenomena. Side effects vary among the types of antidepressants and may include sleepiness, tremors, anxiety, loss of sexual desire, and nausea. Antipsychotic drugs are associated with many different adverse effects, including extrapyramidal symptoms, which can cause tremors, uncontrolled facial movements (or tics), muscle stiffness, and difficulty maintaining balance. Atypical antipsychotics increase the risk of diabetes, high cholesterol, heart problems, involuntary movements, and stroke, and they tend to heighten the risk of suicidal thoughts among patients under age 18. Long-term use of stimulants can lead to dependence, and some individuals may experience an increase in heart rate or blood pressure, insomnia, poor appetite, and weight loss.