Governance beyond the state
The literature on the new governance highlights the role of markets, networks, and non-state actors. It thereby weakens the distinction between states and other domains of social order. All social and political regimes appear to depend on a pattern of rule, or form of governance, no matter how informal it might be. Hence, the term governance has come to refer to social and political orders other than the state.
Some patterns of rule appear in civil society. The most-discussed of these is corporate governance, which is the means of directing and controlling business corporations. The interest in corporate governance is linked to theoretical questions in microeconomics about how to account for the stability of firms. Most responses to these questions parallel those that rational choice theorists give to questions about the origins of social norms, laws, and institutions. Yet the main source of interest in corporate governance is probably public, shareholder, and governmental concerns about corporate scandals, corruption, abuse of monopoly power, and the high salaries paid to top executives. Three broad themes dominate the resulting literature on corporate ethics. They are openness through disclosure of information, integrity through straightforward dealing, and accountability through a clear division of responsibilities.
Regional governance
The rise of new regional regimes and institutions, such as the European Union (EU), plays two roles in discussions of the new governance. Many commentators suggest, first, that the cause of the new governance is that the rise of these regional regimes has eroded the autonomy of nation states. And, second, the new regional regimes are often taken to be examples of a networked polity and so of the new governance rather than an elder government.
The EU constitutes the most prominent case of the new regional governance. Studies of the EU gave rise to an extensive literature on multilevel governance. The EU is a level of governance above the nation state, which in turn often contains various levels of local and federal government. The literature on multilevel governance in the EU posits links in the EU between the European Commission, national ministries, and local and regional authorities. It emphasizes the rise of transnational policy networks especially where policy making is depoliticized and routinized, supranational agencies depend on other agencies to deliver services, and there is a need to aggregate interests.
Transnational policy networks are arguably the defining feature of a new pattern of regional (and also international) governance. However, it is important to recognize that these transnational networks do not always lead to the deep linkages associated with the EU. Regional projects can consist of little more than loose preferential trading agreements. It must also be recognized that transnational agreements do not always correspond to actual geographic regions. Much North-South regionalism consists, for example, of agreements between one or more developed states and one or more less-developed states—agreements that secure access to one another’s markets while also diffusing particular regulatory and legal standards.
International governance
The concept of international governance has much the same relation to the new governance as does that of regional governance. On one hand, some commentators suggest that international processes are eroding the importance of the state; the relevant processes include the internationalization of production and of financial transactions, the rise of new international organizations, and the growth of international law. And, on the other hand, the international sphere is itself portrayed as being a case of governance in the total or near absence of the state or government.
Regional governance is, moreover, a prominent part of the pattern of rule that currently operates at the international level. Of course, global organizations, such as the United Nations (UN) or the World Bank, help to create and sustain the laws, rules, and norms that govern international politics. Nonetheless, these organizations aside, many of the interactions and agreements between states and other global actors are situated in the context of the transnational policy networks associated with the new regionalism. If the Cold War was a bipolar era based on the predominance of the United States and the Soviet Union, international governance now consists of a multipolar regionalism, albeit perhaps in the context of U.S. dominance.
The new regional and transnational organizations appear to share certain broad characteristics. They are typically fairly open to countries from outside the region; they are perhaps less a series of protectionist pacts and more a series of interconnected webs within an increasingly global economy. Their policy objectives extend beyond the economy to areas such as security, the environment, human rights, and “good” governance. And last, they often incorporate a variety of non-state actors as well as states themselves. This new type of regional governance has combined with increased economic flows and elder international organizations to transform the world order—that is, to create a new form of international governance.
Theories of governance
Although interest in governance in the early 21st century owes much to public-sector reforms that began in the 1980s, these reforms and the interest they inspired cannot be easily separated from theories such as rational choice and the new institutionalism. It is important to recognize that the meaning of governance varies according to not only the level of generality at which it is pitched but also the theoretical contexts in which it is used.