saint
saint, holy person, believed to have a special relationship to the sacred as well as moral perfection or exceptional teaching abilities. The phenomenon is widespread in the religions of the world, both ancient and contemporary. Various types of religious personages have been recognized as saints, both by popular acclaim and official pronouncement, and their influence on the religious masses (the broad spectrum of those holding various wide-ranging religious beliefs) has been, and is, of considerable significance.
Nature and significance
Saints are persons believed to be connected in a special manner with what is viewed as sacred reality—gods, spiritual powers, mythical realms, and other aspects of the sacred or holy. The religious person may have various relationships with the sacred: as seer, prophet, saviour, monk, nun, priest, priestess, or other such personage. In the case of each of these, however, a specific kind of relationship to the holy is involved. Seers, for example, have an inspirational vision of the future; prophets proclaim a revelation; saviours are entrusted with effecting redemption, liberation, or other salvatory conditions; monks and nuns lead religious lives in accordance with ascetic regulations that they generally observe as long as they live. Every one of these religious persons may simultaneously be, or become, a saint, but there is no necessary connection. Sainthood thus implies a special type of relationship to the holy, a relationship that is not automatically obtained by other religious personages through their performance of religious duties or offices.
The significance of saintly personages is generally based on real or alleged deeds and qualities that became apparent during their lifetimes and continue to exert influence after their deaths. The special character of their feats and qualities of living is believed to arise from an especially close association with a deity or sacred power. In addition to such a relationship, sainthood also requires the existence of a sacral institution that can grant such recognition, or of a popular cult that acknowledges and posits a belief in the saint’s special qualities. In many institutionalized religions there is a regularized process by which saints are officially recognized. In Roman Catholicism there is canonization, which generally requires demonstration that the person in question wrought a miracle after beatification. Canonization requires, among other things, proof that the person in question wrought miracles during his or her lifetime. On the other hand, folk belief often recognizes the saintly powers of living or dead persons long before the institutional religion acknowledges them as saints.
Saints in Eastern religions
Confucianism and Daoism
Confucianism is in the main ethically oriented. Confucius taught that right conduct was a means of acquiring ideal harmony with the Way (Dao) of heaven (tian) and that the “holy rulers of primal times” were representative examples of such ideal conduct. In the oldest known Chinese historical work, the Shujing (“Classic of History”), such a ruler, King Tang (11th century bce), is described as one who “possessed the highest degree of virtue, and so it came to be that he acquired the bright authority of heaven.” Thus, in Confucianism the saintliness of its holy men lay in ethical perfection, and through the practice of ethical ideals a contact with heaven was established. Confucius himself serves as an example of a man who was first regarded as a saint because of his deep wisdom and conscientious observance of ethical precepts and was even considered to be “more than human.” During the Han dynasty (206 bce–220 ce), Confucius was elevated to a new status: Emperor Gaozi offered sacrifice at the Confucian temple, and Emperor Wu proclaimed Confucianism the official ideology of China. The titles of duke (1 ce) and king (739) were further tributes to “the perfect sage.” During the Tang dynasty (618–907), sacrifices were regularly offered in Confucian temples, and in 1906 Confucius was declared equal to the Lord of Heaven.
Daoism is oriented toward another kind of sanctity: the attainment of a passionless unity with the Absolute. Zhuangzi (died c. 300 bce), a mystical Daoist sage, speaks of the zhenren, or the “pure men of early times,” in the eponymous work attributed to him, the Zhuangzi, and characterizes them as such.
Shintō
Shintō, the native Japanese religion, is concerned with the veneration of nature and with ancestor worship; it does not have saints according to the standards of ethical perfection or of exceptionally meritorious performance. According to Shintō belief, every person after his death becomes a kami, a supernatural being who continues to have a part in the life of the community, nation, and family. Good men become good and beneficial kamis, bad men become pernicious ones. Being elevated to the status of a divine being is not a privilege peculiar to those with saintly qualities, for evil men also become kamis. There are in Shintō, however, venerated mythical saints—such as Ōkuninushi (“Master of the Great Land”) and Sukuma-Bikona (a dwarf deity)—who are considered to be the discoverers and patrons of medicine, magic, and the art of brewing rice.
Buddhism
Founded by Siddharta Gautama, Buddhism developed into three major forms in the course of its more than 2,500-year history: Theravada (“Way of the Elders”), also called in derogation Hinayana (“Lesser Vehicle”); Mahayana (“Greater Vehicle”); and, stemming from it, Vajrayana (“Thunderbolt Vehicle”; also “Diamond Vehicle”). A belief in saints prevails in all three groups.
Theravada Buddhism, claiming strict adherence to the teachings of the Buddha, recognizes as saints (arhats) those who have attained nirvana (the state of bliss) and hence salvation from samsara (the compulsory circle of rebirth) by their own efforts. The Buddha himself—having obtained nirvana (“the destruction of greed,…hate,…and illusion”)—is viewed as the first Buddhist saint. Disciples of the Buddha who reached nirvana after him also are considered holy men. Furthermore, in early Buddhism there were also women regarded as holy, including Prajapati, the Buddha’s aunt and stepmother—whose repeated requests finally caused the Buddha to permit women to enter his order—and his wife Yashodhara.
Mahayana Buddhism, originating about the beginning of the Christian era, rejected the Theravada belief that only monks may attain salvation. In Mahayana belief there is a path to redemption for all people, irrespective of their social standing. Salvation and the way to redemption are conceived in terms more liberal than those of Theravada. Mahayana Buddhists believe in an otherworldly paradise that allows for personal existence and in which dwell heavenly buddhas (those who have attained nirvana in previous worlds) and bodhisattvas (“Buddhas-to-be”). The heavenly buddhas and bodhisattvas are believed to grant grace to sentient beings, so that salvation is no longer acquired by fleeing from the world and giving up worldly attachments but rather by faith (in the sense of trust) in the promise of a saviour deity. Thus, in Mahayana Buddhism the Buddhas and bodhisattvas are viewed as the holy ones, the saints, who in compassion attempt to aid others struggling for salvation. This concept is in striking contrast to the arhats of Theravada Buddhism, who follow the dying Buddha’s last words, “Seek your own salvation with diligence.” The basic altruistic concept of Mahayana then is that of the helping bodhisattva. Everyone should strive for this ideal in order to save as many fellow men as possible as a bodhisattva and to bring them into the “Greater Vehicle” (Mahayana). Hence, the idea of faith in benevolent saints gains prominence in Mahayana Buddhism as a theistic religion of salvation. In Japanese Mahayana there are patron saints, such as Shōtoku Taishi, the regent who supported the development of Buddhism in his country about 600 ce, after it had been introduced in 552.
Vajrayana Buddhism, embodying, among other views, Tantrism (a system of magical and esoteric practices), is mainly represented by Tibetan Buddhism. In addition to the innumerable saints of Mahayana Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism also accepts as living saints those who are regarded as incarnations (tulkus) of saints, scholars of the past, deities, or demons. The Dalai Lamas, heads of the Tibetan hierarchy, are viewed as reincarnations of Chen-re-zi (the bodhisattva of mercy, Avalokiteshvara).
Jainism
According to Jain teaching, there were 23 Tirthankaras (saintly prophets or proclaimers of salvation) before Mahavira Vardhamana, the 6th-century-bce Indian religious leader after whom Jainism was named. Today they are venerated as saints in temples containing their images. Veneration of the Holy Tirthankaras is viewed in terms of purifying the devotee morally, as these saints are but examples for the Jainas and not actually objects of a cult.
Hinduism
Hinduism encompasses the religious and cultural worlds of India, including not only the ancient Vedic religion but also various regional traditions. Hindu ascetics have always been revered by the masses as sadhus (saints, or “good ones”) and yogis (ascetic practitioners), and the concept of the avatara (the idea of the incarnation of a divine being in human form) has served to interpret the existence of holy ones. By means of this concept it was, and still is, possible to consider living and dead saints as incarnations of a deity and also to incorporate saints of other religions into the Hindu world of belief. Thus, the Buddha, for instance, is regarded by some as an avatara of the god Vishnu, and the Hindu saint Ramakrishna is considered to be an avatara of the god Shiva.