Japanese religion
- Key People:
- Anezaki Masaharu
- Related Topics:
- Shintō
- Shinbutsu shūgō
- Shugen-dō
- Dōkyō
- Ryōbu Shintō
Japanese religion, the religious beliefs and practices of the Japanese people. There is no single dominant religion in Japan. Instead, several religious and quasi-religious systems exist side by side. Shintō was traditionally intertwined with the functions of the Japanese state, while the broader populace has been influenced by an unorganized Folk Shintō (Minzoku Shintō), related to but not altogether compatible with the institutionalized form. Public and private morality has been based on Confucianism, and spiritual and metaphysical problems have been the concern of Buddhism. Bushidō was the guiding principle of the warrior caste during the feudal period.
While these systems have never lost their identities, each has been deeply influenced by the others. To complicate the matter further, in the 19th century the Japanese government recognized 13 Sect Shintō (Kyōha Shintō) denominations outside traditional Shintō, and after World War II numerous “new religions” (shinkō shukyō) emerged. In the 21st century, Shintō, Buddhism, Christianity (including the Japanese Orthodox Church), and new religions claimed memberships totaling more than 150 percent of the total population of Japan. This reflects the accepted pattern of plurality of religious affiliation among the Japanese, who find no contradiction in paying homage to Buddhist and Shintō deities alike.
Traditionally, beliefs and practices in Japan conform to those followed by an individual’s family. The average home has both the Shintō family shrine (kamidana, or “god-shelf”) and the Buddhist family altar (butsudan). In addition to family rites, pious Japanese visit their tutelary Shintō shrines from time to time; others do so only on special festive occasions. On holy days many Japanese also visit the Buddhist temples to which their families belong. As the family cemetery is usually taken care of by the Buddhist temple, and funerals and memorial services are performed according to Buddhist rites, members of the family visit the cemetery and temples, as well as ask a Buddhist priest to read passages from a sacred scripture (sutra) at the family altar, on the anniversaries of deceased relatives. When a child is born, the infant is taken to the Shintō shrine to receive the blessing and protection of the tutelary deity. In the modern period the observance of the traditional religious practices has broken down considerably, especially among the urban populations, but the pattern of plural belonging has persisted.
The early period of Japanese religion
Very little is known about the religious beliefs and practices of the inhabitants of the Japanese islands in the prehistoric period, but the earliest Japanese religion had much in common with the shamanism of northeastern Asia. A Chinese chronicle of the 3rd century ce mentions that a female shaman ruler, Pimiku (Himiko in Japanese, meaning “sun daughter”), reigned over one of the kingdoms in Japan; she “was old and unmarried, and had devoted herself to magic.” Also according to the Chinese records, when Queen Himiko died, a great mound was raised over her, and more than 1,000 of her male and female attendants followed her in death. She was succeeded by a young female relative named Iyo or Ichiyo. Scholars have not agreed as to where Himiko’s kingdom of Yamatai was situated, but, according to tradition, Himiko enshrined the Sacred Mirror, one of the Three Sacred Treasures of Japan (Sanshu no Jingi), at Ise Shrine in central Honshu. The shrine, which is dedicated to the sun goddess Amaterasu, remains one of the most important religious sites in Japan.
The religion of the early Yamato clans was a form of polytheistic nature worship, in which each clan (uji) also venerated its own special deity (ujigami). Among all the clan deities, Amaterasu, the deity of the imperial clan, held a special position of honour. Gradually, simple shrines were constructed for the performance of religious rites consisting of obeisance, offerings, and prayer. While the early Japanese were not concerned with moral sins, they were preoccupied with ceremonial defilement, and, thus, the most important feature of the early Japanese religion was purification, which was achieved by exorcism, cleansing, and abstention. This religion was later called Shintō, or “the way of the gods,” and most of the characteristics of early Shintō have been preserved to a significant degree in the present-day religion.
Beginning in the 4th and 5th centuries, when Japan came under Chinese influence, Japanese society accepted Confucian ethical principles and Confucian social and political theories. Thus, although the traditional paternalistic authoritarianism was retained, interpersonal relationships came to be regulated in terms of such concepts as filial piety, the veneration of ancestors, and reciprocal rights and obligations between superiors and inferiors. Moreover, Japanese indifference to metaphysical speculations gave way to the acceptance of many philosophical concepts from Daoism and the yinyang system. Numerous kinds of divination, witchcraft, palmistry, and fortune-telling too were introduced from China, and the influence of astrologers and sorcerers was strongly felt, even in court life.
The introduction of Buddhism to Japan
In 538 or 552 King Seong (Sŏng) of the Korean kingdom of Baekje (Paekche) presented to the Japanese court a Buddhist image, copies of Buddhist scriptures, and liturgical ornaments, and from this date Buddhism in Japan is usually said to have begun. The Chinese form of Buddhism that reached Japan blended within it the spiritual wisdom and learning of India and China, with well-organized ecclesiastical institutions and highly developed arts and architecture.
After an initial period of resistance on the part of Shintō priestly families and conservative aristocrats, Buddhism gradually captured the Japanese. Many scholars, priests, nuns, and ecclesiastical artists were welcomed from China and Korea. While the majority of the people did not understand or appreciate the subtleties of Buddhist doctrine, they were dazzled by the arts, ceremonies, and architecture of Buddhism, and they hoped to accumulate merit in the life to come by contributing money, land, and buildings to the monastic orders. The relatively rapid expansion of Buddhism in Japan was largely due to the support it received from the court.
By far the most famous patron of Buddhism was Prince Taishi Shōtoku, whose religious policy left lasting marks on Japanese Buddhism. The second of his Seventeen Articles reads: “Revere the Three Treasures—Buddha. the Law, and the Holy Community—for these are…the supreme object of faith in all countries.” Shōtoku was also fully aware of the political significance of Buddhism as a stabilizing and unifying force for the nation. With active encouragement and support from the government, Buddhism prospered, and Buddhist temples served as religious, educational, and philanthropic institutions. Hōryū Temple, constructed in the Chinese style between 601 and 607 outside of Nara, would serve as a model for Buddhist temple complexes throughout Japan. In 685 the government issued an official decree ordering the establishment of Buddhist family altars in all households.
The spread of Buddhism in the Nara period (710–784 ce)
During the Nara period the Kojiki (“Records of Ancient Matters”) and the Nihon shoki (“Chronicles of Japan”) were compiled from oral traditions, and these chronicles have remained the semisacred scriptures of Shintō. Both Shintō and Buddhism were regarded as important departments of the state, and the government controlled the appointment of ecclesiastics.
There were six schools of Buddhism during this period: the Jōjitsu (Sautrantika), Kusha (Sarvastivada), Sanron (Madhyamika), Hossō (Yogachara), Kegon (Avatamsaka), and Ritsu (Vinaya). The first two are Theravadin and were studied only as intellectual disciplines, and the last was a nondoctrinal study of monastic rules and ordination rites. Doctrinally important were the three Mahayana schools, Sanron, Hossō, and Kegon. Although lofty philosophical systems intrigued some studious monks, these were largely ignored by pious followers. Many people were interested in the reading of certain scriptures and in charitable works that they believed would bring rewards both in this world and in the next life, and they were undiscriminating in their attitudes toward Buddhism, Shintō, and Confucianism. Confucianism was often characterized as the “Outer Gate,” a stepping-stone toward the “Inner Gate” of Buddhism. Shintō deities were enshrined within the compounds of many Buddhist temples. Also during the Nara period, under the leadership of En-no-Gyōja (died 701?), whose religion combined Folk Shintō, Buddhism, and Daoism, the order of Mountain Priests (Shugen-dō) emerged; they were destined to play an important role in the subsequent history of Japanese religions.
In the capital, however, Buddhism exerted a decisive influence. The close affiliation of Buddhism and the court resulted in the involvement in political intrigues of rich and powerful monks. The daring attempt of the priest chancellor Dōkyō to usurp the throne failed, but the incident illustrates the power of the Buddhist hierarchy of 8th-century Japan.
Tendai and Shingon Buddhism in the Heian period (794–1185)
Two schools of Buddhism prospered in the Heian period: the Tendai school, founded by Saichō (Dengyō Daishi; 767–822), and the Shingon school, founded by Kūkai (Kōbō Daishi; died 835). Saichō tried to synthesize the doctrines of the Tendai, Zen, and esoteric schools of Buddhism within the doctrinal framework of the Lotus Sutra. He envisaged the monastic centre at Mount Hiei, not far from Kyōto, as the religious capital of the nation. Kūkai dedicated his life to the establishment of the esoteric Shingon school of Buddhism in Japan. He was a great synthesizer, and his school, embracing both lofty philosophy and magical incantations, influenced the courtiers in Kyōto as well as the masses in remote areas. Even the Tendai school, shortly after the death of Saichō, came under the influence of the Shingon and became de facto another esoteric school.
Kūkai is credited with the theoretical formulation of Ryōbu (“Dual Aspect”) Shintō, a pattern of coexistence or amalgamation of Shintō with Buddhism. A similar attempt, called Ichijitsu (“One Reality”) or Sannō Ichijitsu Shintō, was made by the Tendai school. Both of them interpret Shintō deities as Japanese manifestations of Buddha, finding no contradiction between Buddhism and Shintō. Also, the order of Mountain Priests allied itself with these Buddhist schools and came to be known as the Shingon Shugen-dō and Tendai Shugen-dō, respectively. In the course of time, the monastic centres at Mount Hiei and Mount Kōya (founded by Kūkai, south of Kyōto) became rich, powerful, and corrupt, overshadowing all the old Buddhist institutions at Nara and the historic Shintō shrines.
Spiritual awakening during the Kamakura period (1192–1333)
The Kamakura period is noted for a number of great individuals who exerted a far-reaching influence on the religious life of the people—e.g., Hōnen and Shinran, who advocated Amida pietism and established Pure Land Buddhism in Japan; Dōgen, who systematized Zen Buddhism; and Nichiren, a patriotic prophet and the founder of the Nichiren sect. Among the warriors, Bushidō became the guiding principle. There was also a movement to restore the ancient glory of Japan. In the political domain this resulted in a short-lived restoration of the imperial rule under Go-Daigo (1334–35), and in the religious domain it gave rise to the Shintō movements in reaction against the Buddhist domination of the Heian period.
Social disintegration and religious strife in the Muromachi period (1338–1573)
The Muromachi (or Ashikaga) period was marked by a series of natural calamities and political rivalries, but it also witnessed the development of the lyric drama (Noh) and the tea ceremony. Cultural leadership was maintained by Buddhist monks, especially those practicing Zen Buddhism, which became a semiofficial state religion. The Rinzai sect in particular received significant support from the Ashikaga clan.
Social disintegration during the 16th century was greatly accentuated by a series of conflicts among religious groups, such as the followers of Nichiren, the followers of Shinran (known then as the Jōdo Shinshū, or “True Pure Land sect”), and the monk-soldiers of the Tendai monastic centre at Mount Hiei. They engaged in bloody battles, invoking the holy name of Buddha, fighting for the political control of ecclesiastical jurisdictions. Buddhist institutions became, in many instances, dens of mercenaries and vagabonds, while many Shintō shrines were totally neglected.
The social and political chaos sent many ambitious young Japanese to build their careers in foreign countries or engage in foreign trade, and outside contact brought Europeans to Japan. Portuguese traders were soon followed by Roman Catholic missionaries; the Jesuit Francis Xavier and his companions arrived on Japanese shores in 1549. To the Japanese, Roman Catholicism, known as the Kirishitan sect, was not only a new religion but a symbol of European civilization. While some of the oppressed peasantry welcomed the gospel of salvation, the merchants and trade-conscious warrior lords regarded Catholicism as an important link between themselves and the expanding European continent. Some of them dispatched emissaries to the Vatican and to courts of Catholic princes in Europe.
Catholic missionary work was encouraged by Oda Nobunaga, who was trying to unify Japan. Although he had no religious interest in it, Nobunaga used Catholicism to counteract the political strength of the powerful Buddhist institutions. Under Nobunaga’s successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the Kirishitan sect was greatly restricted. However, according to one report sent to the Vatican, there were about 150,000 Japanese converts toward the end of the 16th century.
The dominance of Neo-Confucianism in the Tokugawa period (1603–1867)
The initial policy of the Tokugawa feudal regime toward Roman Catholicism wavered because of two considerations: the Tokugawa rulers were wary of the Catholic nations, which were rapidly expanding their influence in Asia, but, at the same time, they did not wish to lose trade with Europe. Prohibition edicts were issued repeatedly against Japanese Kirishitans, but they were not thoroughly enforced. The severest blow came to the Roman Catholics in 1637, when thousands of Kyushu Kirishitans in the Shimabara area rebelled against the Tokugawa regime. When the uprising was quelled, Japanese Catholics were ordered to renounce their faith; if they did not, they were either tortured or shipped out of the country. Medieval Roman Catholicism in Japan was brought to an end.
Following the Shimabara uprising, the Tokugawa regime took the far more drastic measure of “seclusion,” cutting off all trade and other relations with foreign powers with the exception of the Netherlands. In order to exterminate Japanese Kirishitans, every family was required to belong to a Buddhist temple, thus making Buddhist priests de facto officials of the regime. While the Tokugawa rulers utilized religion, however, they did not trust the ecclesiastical authorities and took pains to minimize their influence. By rigidly stratifying society into the four classes of warriors, farmers, artisans and merchants, the Tokugawas attempted to maintain permanent martial law to guard against insubordination. The Buddhist and Shintō ecclesiastics, however, considered apart from the hierarchical social order, were governed by the commissioner of temples and shrines.
In order to cement the feudalistic social structure, the Tokugawa regime depended on Neo-Confucianism as the guiding system of morality. What attracted the Tokugawas was the Stoic qualities in Neo-Confucianism, especially in the tradition of Zhu Xi (Shushi in Japanese). To a regime that was trying to rationalize its existence, the Neo-Confucian ideology of heavenly sanction for the empirical social order was enticing. According to this paternalistic ethic, the superior was urged to be benevolent and just, while the inferior was expected to be obedient and to observe propriety. The Tokugawa rulers emphasized Neo-Confucian ethics as the cornerstone of education, which was systematized and propagated by such influential men as Kinoshita Jun’an, Arai Hakuseki, and Muro Kyūsō. The cardinal virtues thus taught were filial piety, loyalty, obedience, and the sense of indebtedness to one’s superiors.
Neo-Confucian moral concepts also helped the development of the Bushidō, which, although it was never meant to be a religion, was greatly influenced by Buddhism and Shintō, as well as Confucianism, and developed a quasi-religious cult. In times of war Bushidō taught the capacity to stand on the verge of life and death, and in times of peace it taught the virtues of self-renunciation, frugality, obedience to superiors, and benevolence. One of the best examples of Bushidō was the incident of the 47 ronin. During the greater part of the Tokugawa period the ruling regime managed to keep peace and civic order by indoctrinating the warriors, who were at the top of the social ladder, to be examples to the inferior classes.
The influence of Neo-Confucianism and Bushidō, however, was confined for the most part to the warrior class. Among the farmers, artisans, and merchants, Buddhism and Shintō continued to maintain their strength. Buddhism entered upon a period of spiritual decadence that promoted the gradual release of Shintō from its age-old domination. Greatly encouraged by the cooperation and assistance of Neo-Confucian scholars, Shintō leaders aspired to restore their faith as the national religion of Japan.
The institutionalization of religions during the Tokugawa period did not meet the needs of the common people, and the spiritual vacuum was filled by many popular eclectic semireligious movements. Among the oppressed peasantry, many apocalyptic messianic movements arose, attracting men and women with incantation, faith healing, and the promise of this-worldly benefits. Some of these movements later developed into Sect Shintō denominations.
The Meiji Restoration and the emergence of modern Japan
The combined pressures of Western powers after 1853 persuaded the Meiji government to lift the edict banning Christianity in 1873, and religious freedom was guaranteed in the constitution of 1889: “Japanese subjects shall, within limits not prejudicial to peace and order, and not antagonistic to their duties as subjects, enjoy freedom of religious belief” (Article 28). The modernization of Japan, however, was initiated by a paternalistic, authoritarian government, which attempted to revitalize Shintō as the national religion. Thus, the government separated Shintō from its close affiliation with Buddhism, and the department of Shintō was established to superimpose Shintō on the new Japan. The movement known as Haibutsu Kishaku (“Extermination of Buddhism”) reached its climax in 1870–71, when in the Toyama district alone 1,730 temples were reduced overnight to 7. Such extreme measures elicited severe criticism and a series of local riots, and the government had to soften its anti-Buddhist policy. The Department of Shintō was replaced in 1872 by the Ministry of Religion and Education, which tried to advocate patriotism, reverence for Shintō deities, and the emperor cult. Gradually, Buddhism recovered its strength, and, in order to gain emancipation from the government policy, Buddhists, even though they were against the introduction of Christianity, fought for religious freedom.
With the lifting of the ban against Christianity, various Christian churches initiated vigorous evangelical and educational programs. The Russian Orthodox Church started its work in Hokkaido and gradually pushed southward to Tokyo, the Roman Catholic Church started in Kyushu and pushed eastward to Tokyo, and the Protestant churches concentrated their efforts in various urban centres. In addition to missionaries, there were a number of devoted Christians among the foreign teachers employed by the Japanese government, and some of them had a lasting influence on their students. William S. Clark, president of Massachusetts Agricultural College (now the University of Massachusetts), was invited to develop the Sapporo Agricultural College in Hokkaido, and through his personal influence he developed many prominent Japanese Christian leaders. The Christian movement found great inspiration in the person of Niijima Jō (also called Joseph Hardy Neesima), who had risked his life to leave Japan before the official opening of the country, studied at Amherst College, and returned to Japan in 1874 as the first native-born Christian minister. In 1875 Niijima founded Doshisha University, which remains one of Japan’s most influential Christian universities. Protestants made notable contributions in education, especially among women, and in social and philanthropic works. In 1883 the Protestants reported 130 churches, 70 educational institutions, and about 5,000 members.
At Kyushu, the stronghold of Roman Catholicism, many “hidden” Catholics had secretly observed their faith throughout the Tokugawa period. This was especially true in Nagasaki, the only Japanese port to remain open to the outside world throughout the Tokugawa era. The Gothic-style Oura Roman Catholic church was erected in Nagasaki in 1864 to commemorate 26 martyrs—6 Franciscan missionaries and 20 Japanese laypeople—who were crucified in the city in 1597. In 1884 Catholics in southern Japan alone numbered 24,656, most of them living in Kyushu; in 1891 Kyushu had 27,909 Catholics out of the 44,505 in all of Japan. At first the Foreign Missionary Society of Paris was the only Roman Catholic agency working in Japan, but after 1904 the Spanish Dominicans, the German Society of the Divine Word, German Franciscans and Jesuits, Canadian Franciscans, and Italian Salesians started missionary work in various parts of Japan.
Western science and philosophy also affected the religious situation in Japan. As early as the 1870s, John Stuart Mill, Charles Darwin, Thomas Henry Huxley, and Herbert Spencer were introduced, and soon Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau began to attract Japanese students. A little later Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and Arthur Schopenhauer became the intellectual idols in the colleges. Japanese Buddhists found their greatest inspiration in Schopenhauer, Benedict de Spinoza, and Hegel. In 1889, the year of the new constitution guaranteeing freedom of religion, the Japanese government banned religious instruction in schools, although “moral teaching, if applicable to all religions, could be given” (Ordinance 12). The Ministry of Education intended to give a special advantage to Shintō by interpreting it not as a religion but as a patriotic cult; henceforth, education became the means of inculcating an ethnocentric nationalism and strengthening the emperor cult.
Following the spirit of the Imperial Rescript on Education (Kyōiku Chokugo) of 1890, the government required a course on moral teaching in public schools and advocated obeisance at Shintō shrines by adherents of all religions. Encouraged by these measures, extreme nationalists began to attack Christianity on the grounds that it was incompatible with nationalism. Meanwhile, the government applied the new category of Sect (Kyōha) Shintō to popular messianic movements in order to separate them from Shintō, which was to be kept nonreligious and suprareligious. Between 1882 and 1908, 13 such denominations were recognized by the government.
In the period of social ferment that characterized the first quarter of the 20th century, the demands for universal suffrage, organization of labour, and other such movements for social justice came to be suspect as Bolshevik-inspired; in opposition to them, the emperor cult, Shintō, Yamato-damashii (“Japanese spirit”), and national ethics were trumpeted as ideological weapons against all “foreign” and “dangerous” ideas. In the 1930s all liberal thinking and expression, in religion, philosophy, art, or culture, were condemned as dangerous.
In 1936 Japan joined Germany in the Anti-Comintern Pact, and the government began to press all religious bodies to cooperate with the national aim to extend the imperial rule abroad. The Roman Catholic Church, which previously had taken the position that obeisance at Shintō shrines was a religious ceremony, changed its stance under pressure. All religious bodies were asked to send their representatives to the front to pray for Japan’s victory. In 1939 the Religious Bodies Law was enforced, by which the government could control all aspects of religious organizations, and Buddhism and Christianity were urged to unite their respective denominations. Further, the Japan Religious League (Nihon Shūkyō Renmei), composed of Christian, Buddhist, and Sect Shintō federations, was organized in 1941 to provide a spiritual bulwark for the nation.
Post-World War II Japan and the growth of new religions
Japan’s surrender to the Allied powers in 1945 was followed by the disestablishment of State Shintō and the renunciation of the dogma of the emperor’s divine nature. Assured of freedom of religious belief, practice, and propaganda, the Buddhist, Christian, and Sect Shintō denominations, which had been forced into union during the war, later declared their independence. Many splinter sects which were once identified with Buddhism or Shintō separated from them, and numerous “new religions” (shinkō shukyō) emerged.
Japanese “new religions”
The term “new religions” came to be used loosely in counterdistinction to religions already existing, and it included those movements which developed in the wake of World War II. They are usually classified into five categories: (1) those which stemmed from Buddhism; (2) those which accept a monotheistic belief or, more technically, monolatry; (3) those which accept henotheism (i.e., recognize the existence of several gods but make one god the centre of worship); (4) those which are utopian-messianic; and (5) those which are primarily concerned with practical ethics. Some of the new religions, of course, fit into more than one category. In addition, some of them are so new that their founders are still living, and some of them continue to receive new revelations, so that their doctrinal systems are not clearly defined. Each sect has an independent institutional structure and trains its own teachers, many of whom are volunteers. Members, however, are not always followers of one sect exclusively, and, more often than not, they consider themselves also Buddhists and adherents of Shintō.
Most of these sects are eclectic. Their teachings exhibit the influences of Buddhism, Shintō, Confucianism, and Christianity. Their doctrines are characteristically simple to understand, they are skilfully organized, and their founders are usually charismatic leaders. These sects give their followers a sense of belonging that they do not get elsewhere; newcomers are made to feel welcome, and the sects promote mutual aid and public welfare. Several of them operate educational, medical, and philanthropic institutions, and some even have excellent museums and libraries. Unlike the older religions, these sects hold informal services and meetings, and they make use of the techniques of group psychology. All are highly centralized in structure, and some have semimilitary disciplines and hierarchical systems. All use modern mass media of communication and have efficient methods of tithing.
What gives each of these sects its distinct character is the personality of the founder or organizer. Many of the leaders have boasted unusual spiritual powers in divination, sorcery, incantation, fortune-telling, and healing, and they have demonstrated the capacity to attract and maintain rapport with a large number of followers. About 100 of these sects are members of the Union of New Religious Organizations (Shinshūren). In some ways, they have much in common with the Sect Shintō denominations, and the relationship between them is complex.
The earliest of the Japanese new religions include Tenrikyō and Konkō-kyō. Both were founded in the 19th century and were recognized as denominations of Sect Shinto in 1908. The interwar years saw the development of Gedatsu-kai (a sect that is a syncretistic blend of Shintō, Buddhism, and Confucianism), Ōmoto-kyō, and Hito-no-michi (another Shintō-related sect). The postwar period saw further development of some of these earlier groups; Hito-no-michi, for example, became PL Kyōdan (Perfect Liberty Church). New sects also appeared, such as Tenshō Kōtai Jingō-kyō, also known as Odoru Shu-kyō (the Dancing Religion); and Jōhrei, a Christian-based self-help movement.
The most notorious of the Japanese new religious groups, the radical doomsday sect AUM Shinrikyo (now Aleph), was founded in 1987 by Matsumoto Chizuo (known as Asahara Shoko). Its teachings were a mixture of Asian traditions and Christian apocalypticism. The group fell into disgrace after it launched a nerve gas attack on a Tokyo subway that killed 13 people and injured some 5,500. AUM Shinrikyo later changed its name to Aleph and tried to rehabilitate itself without its founder, who was executed in 2018 for his part in orchestrating the subway attack.
The most successful of the Japanese new religions is Sōka-gakkai (Value Creation Society), a lay Nichiren Buddhist group that claimed more than eight million members in the 21st century. Sōka-gakkai stresses the values of beauty and goodness (Zen) and the benefits of chanting an invocation to its chief scripture, the Lotus Sutra. Founded in 1930 by former elementary-school principal Makiguchi Tsunesaburō, the group was repressed and disbanded during World War II, but it was refounded in 1946. It experienced dramatic growth in the 1950s, partly due to a controversial conversion technique called shakubuku (“break and subdue”), in which the resistance of a person is destroyed by forceful argument. This practice was later curtailed. In 1964 Sōka-gakkai founded the political party Kōmeitō (Clean Government Party), and Kōmeitō quickly established itself as a major force in the Japanese political scene. Kōmeitō (New Kōmeitō after 1998) consistently ranked as the third largest political party in the Japanese Diet, and in the 21st century it served as the junior coalition partner in a series of Liberal-Democratic Party (LDP) governments.
Traditional religions in modern Japan
All this is not to suggest that the older religions are declining. The Grand Shrine of Ise alone attracts millions of visitors and pilgrims annually, and Sect Shintō denominations, such as Tenrikyō, have experienced significant growth in Japan and abroad. The Buddhist sects are also holding their strength.
The strength of Buddhism in Japan lies in the intelligentsia and rural population. Buddhist scholarship is promoted by the activities of the Japanese Association of Indian and Buddhist Studies. Many Buddhist scholars are well versed in Sanskrit literature, as well as Western philosophies and religions. The Young Men’s and Young Women’s Buddhist associations are active, and a nondenominational lay Buddhist movement appeals to both the intelligentsia and the masses. Many of the Sect Shintō denominations and the new religions have recruited their adherents from the traditionally Buddhist rural population. Japanese Buddhist sects reported more than 80 million adherents in the 21st century.
Christianity in modern Japan
Among all religions affected by the Religious Bodies Law of 1939, Christianity was the hardest hit. Most of the Protestant churches were forced by the government to join the Church of Christ in Japan (Kyōdan) in 1942, and in 1944 both the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of Christ joined the Japan Wartime Patriotic Religious Association, along with the Shintō and Buddhist bodies.
After World War II, Christianity enjoyed full freedom. Notable in the postwar period was the rapid expansion of the Roman Catholic Church and the fundamentalist wings of Protestantism; also, some of the denominations that joined the wartime union later broke away. Christianity in Japan suffers from its perceived “foreignness” and lack of roots. Churches and related institutions congregate in cities, and relatively little work has been done in the rural areas. Not until after World War II were programs for industrial and rural areas developed. Nevertheless, the Christian influence is growing among middle-class Japanese, especially through the church-related educational institutions. In the 21st century, Christians in Japan numbered about two million, of whom roughly a quarter were Roman Catholic.