- Germany from 1250 to 1493
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Additional Reading
General works
Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR, Information GDR: The Comprehensive and Authoritative Reference Source of the German Democratic Republic, 2 vol. (1989), is a comprehensive work on former East Germany. Eric Solsten (ed.), Germany: A Country Study, 3rd ed. (1996), provides an excellent overview of all aspects of life in Germany.
Land
A simple but useful portrayal of Germany in maps is Bernhard Schäfers et al., The State of Germany Atlas (1998; originally published in German, 1997). W. Tietze et al. (eds.), Geographie Deutschlands: Bundesrepublik Deutschland (1990), is a massive, comprehensive, and authoritative geographic survey. Excellent broad overviews are provided by Herbert Liedtke and Joachim Marcinek (eds.), Physische Geographie Deutschlands, 3rd ed. (2002); and Karl Eckart (ed.), Deutschland (2001).
People
Publications that provide an overview of population issues in Germany and Europe include Rainer Münz and Myron Weiner (eds.), Migrants, Refugees, and Foreign Policy: U.S. and German Policies Toward Countries of Origin (1997); and Heinz Fassmann and Rainer Münz (eds.), European Migration in the Late Twentieth Century: Historical Patterns, Actual Trends, and Social Implications (1994).
Economy
Eric Owen Smith, The German Economy (1994), provides an overview of West and East Germany’s economies as well as that of reunited Germany. Sources of recent information on Germany include the periodicals Country Profile: Germany (annual), Country Report: Germany (quarterly), and OECD Economic Surveys: Germany (annual). Leslie Lipschitz and Donogh McDonald (eds.), German Unification: Economic Issues (1990), deals with the economic ramifications of political reunification.
Government and society
German politics in the post-World War II period is the subject of David P. Conradt, The German Polity, 7th ed. (2001); and Manfred G. Schmidt, Political Institutions in the Federal Republic of Germany (2003). Konrad H. Jarausch, The Rush to German Unity (1994), recounts political reunification in 1990. Peter J. Katzenstein (ed.), Tamed Power: Germany in Europe (1997), explains why and how Germany’s political and economic power are now expressed by way of multilateral relationships within the European Union. Mike Dennis, The Rise and Fall of the German Democratic Republic 1945–1990 (2000), provides a political history of the former East Germany. The health care system is discussed in Michael Arnold, Health Care in the Federal Republic of Germany, trans. from the German by Kevin Sullivan (1991); and Richard A. Knox, Germany: One Nation with Health Care for All (1993). The German educational system is the subject of Hansgert Peisert and Gerhild Framhein, Higher Education in the Federal Republic of Germany, trans. from the German by R. Feemster and G. Framhein (1990); and Val D. Rust and Diane Rust, The Unification of German Education (1995).
Cultural life
Intellectual life, arts, and culture in former West Germany are treated in Gordon A. Craig, The Germans (1982, reprinted 1991). Postwar literature is the subject of Lowell A. Bangerter, German Writing Since 1945: A Critical Survey (1988). Celia Applegate, A Nation of Provincials: The German Idea of Heimat (1990), views the pervading attachment to local place as a constant in German history. Other useful studies include Terence Prittie, My Germans, 1933–1983 (1983), which explores social life and customs and national characteristics; and Harry G. Shaffer, Women in the Two Germanies: A Comparative Study of a Socialist and a Non-Socialist Society (1981). The interrelationships between the media and literature are explored in Arthur Williams, Stuart Parkes, and Julian Preece (eds.), Literature, Markets, and Media in Germany and Austria Today (2000). A historical overview of film is provided in Sabine Hake, German National Cinema (2002).
George Hall Kirby Thomas Henry Elkins William H. BerentsenHistory
Ancient Germany
Herbert Schutz, The Prehistory of Germanic Europe (1983), offers a good, well-illustrated general account of the early period. Tim Cornell and John Matthews, Atlas of the Roman World (1982, reissued 1987), clarifies with maps and illustrations the social and economic background of Roman-German interaction.
Peter John HeatherMerovingians and Carolingians
Patrick J. Geary, Before France and Germany: The Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World (1988), examines the period from the perspective of the unity of late antiquity. Rosamond McKitterick, The Frankish Kingdoms Under the Carolingians, 751–987 (1983), presents a general survey of Carolingian Europe, with an emphasis on cultural history.
Patrick J. GearyMedieval Germany to 1250
G. Barraclough, The Origins of Modern Germany, 3rd ed. (1988), is a good analysis of medieval German history. General surveys include Alfred Haverkamp, Medieval Germany, 1056–1273, 2nd ed. (1992; originally published in German, 1984); and Timothy Reuter, Germany in the Early Middle Ages, c. 800–1056 (1991). K.J. Leyser, Rule and Conflict in an Early Medieval Society: Ottonian Saxony (1979, reissued 1989), explores the main forces of development of the Saxon empire and its society from 900 to 1024, and Leyser’s Medieval Germany and Its neighbors, 900–1250 (1982) studies warfare, the nobility, and German-Byzantine and German-English relations. A comprehensive German-language survey covering the Middle Ages is Friedrich Prinz, Grundlagen und Anfänge: Deutschland bis 1056, 2nd ed., rev. (1993).
K.J. LeyserFrom 1250 to 1493
Joachim Leuschner, Germany in the Late Middle Ages (1980; originally published in German, 1975), provides a basic introduction to political history. Studies of regional and local developments include Philippe Dollinger, The German Hansa, trans. and ed. by D.S. Ault and H. Steinberg (1970, reissued 1999; originally published in French, 1964); and Otto Brunner, Land and Lordship: Structures of Governance in Medieval Austria, trans. by Howard Kaminsky and James Van Horn Melton (1992; trans. from the German 4th, rev. ed., 1959). A valuable supplement is the more complex F.R.H. Du Boulay, Germany in the Later Middle Ages (1983). Gerhart Hoffmeister (ed.), The Renaissance and Reformation in Germany: An Introduction (1977), offers a fine overview of intellectual life; and Michael Baxandall, South German Sculpture, 1480–1530 (1974), is a masterly work on the extraordinary flowering of German sculpture.
Lawrence G. DugganFrom 1493 to c. 1760
An excellent guide to this period is Thomas A. Brady, Jr., Heiko A. Oberman, and James D. Tracy (eds.), Handbook of European History, 1400–1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Reformation, 2 vol. (1994–95). Bob Scribner and Sheilagh Ogilvie (eds.), Germany: A New Social and Economic History, 2 vol. (1996), is a good collection on the society and economy of the Renaissance and Reformation. Heiko A. Oberman, Luther: Man Between God and the Devil (1989, reissued 1992; originally published in German, 1982), is a psychologically compelling biography of the Reformer. Peter Blickle, The Revolution of 1525: The German Peasants’ War from a New Perspective (1981, reissued 1985; originally published in German, 1975), stresses the common grievances that brought peasants and the urban poor together in what the author calls “the revolution of the common man.” Thomas A. Brady, Jr., The Politics of the Reformation in Germany: Jacob Sturm (1489–1553) of Strasbourg (1997), tells the story of Reformation politics from the perspective of an important Protestant statesman. Merry E. Wiesner, Working Women in Renaissance Germany (1986), offers a pioneering examination of the changing situation of women engaged in trades and professions between 1500 and 1600. Geoffrey Parker (ed.), The Thirty Years’ War, 2nd rev. ed. (1997), surveys the military, political, social, and cultural aspects of the war. R.J.W. Evans, The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1550–1700: An Interpretation (1979, reprinted 1991), analyzes the events leading to the construction of the Austrian empire in central and eastern Europe.
Gerald Strauss James J. SheehanFrom c. 1760 to 1871
A good survey of the period is James J. Sheehan, German History, 1770–1866 (1989, reissued 1993). David Blackbourn, The Long Nineteenth Century: A History of Germany, 1780–1918 (also published as Fontana History of Germany, 1780–1918: The Long Nineteenth Century, 1997), covers Germany’s emergence as a nation-state. The best account of Germany’s place in the international system is Paul W. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848 (1994, reissued 1996).
A good account of central Europe during the Enlightenment is C.B.A. Behrens, Society, Government, and the Enlightenment: The Experiences of Eighteenth-Century France and Prussia (1985), which presents a comparative history of the events and developments that led to revolution in France and stabilization in Germany. Enno Kraehe, Metternich’s German Policy, 2 vol. (1963–83), describes the Wars of Liberation; while Harold Nicolson, The Congress of Vienna: A Study in Allied Unity, 1812–1822 (1946, reissued 2000), deals with the reconstruction of Europe.
For the period of the German Confederation, the classic Heinrich von Treitschke, Treitschke’s History of Germany in the Nineteenth Century, trans. by Eden Paul and Cedar Paul, 7 vol. (1915–19; also published as History of Germany in the Nineteenth Century, 1915–19, reissued 1968; originally published in German, 5 vol., 1879–89), is a vigorous but opinionated account. A more balanced and up-to-date overview of this period is Thomas Nipperdey, Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck, 1800–1866 (1996; originally published in German, 1983). Jonathan Sperber, Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848–1849 (1991, reprinted 1993), provides a good analysis of the revolution’s social origins and political meaning in western Germany.
Otto Pflanze, Bismarck and the Development of Germany, 2nd ed., 3 vol. (1990), portrays the architect of the new Germany and his impact on the European balance of power. An excellent work on the Franco-Prussian war is Michael Howard, The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France, 1870–71, 2nd ed. (2001).
Theodore S. Hamerow James J. SheehanFrom 1871 to 1918
A general historical survey of the period is Hans-Ulrich Wehler, The German Empire, 1871–1918 (1985, reissued 1997; originally published in German, 1973), which stresses the continuity between the empire and the Nazi era. David Blackbourn and Geoff Eley, The Peculiarities of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Germany (1984), explores the connection between economics and politics in the German Empire. James J. Sheehan, German Liberalism in the Nineteenth Century (1978, reissued 1995), analyzes the activities of the two liberal parties on the local and national levels and describes their growing acceptance of the empire. Margaret Lavinia Anderson, Practicing Democracy: Elections and Political Culture in Imperial Germany (2000), examines the relationship between political participation and authority from 1867 to 1914. Roger Chickering (ed.), Imperial Germany: A Historiographical Companion (1996), is a useful guide to further reading.
Surveys of foreign relations include Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860–1914 (1980, reprinted 1987); and Fritz Fischer, Germany’s Aims in the First World War (1967, reissued 1977; originally published in German, 1961), a pioneering study of the culpability of German elites in the outbreak of World War I.
Economic developments of the period are surveyed in Fritz Stern, Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichröder, and the Building of the German Empire (1977, reissued 1987). Cultural and social issues are addressed in Fritz Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair: A Study in the Rise of the Germanic Ideology (1961, reprinted 1974), a study of intellectuals’ disenchantment with modern industrial society and their hopes for a spiritual revolution. The history of German socialism is detailed in Gary P. Steenson, “Not One Man! Not One Penny!”: German Social Democracy, 1863–1914 (1981), a comprehensive treatment of the Social Democratic Party from its origins to the war; and in Jürgen Kocka, Facing Total War: German Society, 1914–1918 (1984; originally published in German, 1973), an examination of the effects of World War I on different social groups. Ute Frevert, Women in German History: From Bourgeois Emancipation to Sexual Liberation (1989, reissued 1993; originally published in German, 1986), is a fine survey of this important area of research. A good introduction to Germany at war is Roger Chickering, Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 (1998).
Kenneth Barkin James J. SheehanFrom 1918 to 1945
Dietrich Orlow, A History of Modern Germany: 1871 to Present, 4th ed. (1999), offers a good survey of Germany’s difficult 20th century. Hans Mommsen, The Rise and Fall of Weimar Democracy, trans. by Elborg Forster and Larry Eugene Jones (1996; originally published in German, 1989), is a fine synthesis of the republic’s tragic history. The definitive study of the hyperinflation in Germany following World War I is Gerald D. Feldman, The Great Disorder: Politics, Economics, and Society in the German Inflation, 1914–1924 (1993, reissued 1997). Peter Gay, Weimar Culture: The Outsider as Insider (1968, reprinted 1988), provides a stimulating introduction to the cultural and intellectual brilliance of Germany during the 1920s. An excellent guide to further reading on Weimar culture is Anton Kaes, Martin Jay, and Edward Dimendberg (eds.), The Weimar Republic Sourcebook (1994). Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1889–1936: Hubris (1998, reissued 2000), and Hitler, 1936–45: Nemesis (2000), together constitute the definitive biography of the dictator. A comprehensive study of National Socialism emphasizing the totalitarian nature of the regime is available in Karl Dietrich Bracher, The German Dictatorship: The Origins, Structure, and Effects of National Socialism (1970, reissued 1980; originally published in German, 1969). The standard work on Nazi foreign policy is Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany: Diplomatic Revolution in Europe, 1933–36 (1970, reissued 1994), and The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany: Starting World War II, 1937–1939 (1980, reissued 1994). One of the best single-volume treatments of World War II is Gerhard L.Weinberg, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (1994). Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews, rev. ed., 3 vol. (1985), remains the standard and most comprehensive study of the efforts by the Nazis to exterminate the Jewish people; Saul Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews (1997– ), is an important newer study. Michael Berenbaum (ed.), Witness to the Holocaust (1997), contains 94 basic documents on 21 major themes, from the Nazi rise to power to the Nürnberg trials, including consideration of the non-Jewish victims of the Holocaust. Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust (1996), is a controversial interpretation of culpability for the Holocaust.
Karl A. Schleunes James J. SheehanAfter 1945
A survey of the history of both German states is V.R. Berghahn, Modern Germany: Society, Economy, and Politics in the Twentieth Century, 2nd ed. (1987, reissued 1993). A more detailed account of West Germany’s development is Dennis L. Bark and David R. Gress, A History of West Germany, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1993). A good account of the Soviet role in East Germany is Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 (1995). Another analysis of East Germany is Mary Fulbrook, Anatomy of a Dictatorship: Inside the GDR, 1949–1989 (1995, reissued 1997). The Federal Republic’s eastern policy of the 1970s is analyzed in Timothy Garton Ash, In Europe’s Name: Germany and the Divided Continent (1993). An excellent treatment of the collapse of East Germany is Charles S. Maier, Dissolution: The Crisis of Communism and the End of East Germany (1997, reissued 1999). Also of value are Jarausch’s work on German reunification, cited above among other works on government; and Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraft (1995, reissued 1997), which traces the diplomatic events leading to German reunification.
Henry Ashby Turner James J. SheehanResearcher's Note
Holy Roman Empire
Voltaire, it seems, was at least partially right when he famously quipped that the Holy Roman Empire was neither “holy” nor “Roman,” for the medieval empire was indeed neither until at least the 12th century. Although the term Holy Roman Empire is commonly used to identify the medieval empire from its inception on December 25, 800, this title did not actually appear until 1254 in the wake of the recovery of ancient Roman law and the prolonged struggle between the papacy and the Hohenstaufen dynasty. The designation, therefore, is inaccurately applied to the empire before the time of the Hohenstaufen.
The matter is complicated because conceptions of the “Holy Roman Empire” existed in some form from the year 800, when Charlemagne revived the imperial title of imperator augustus (“august emperor”) in the West. Crowned at Rome by Pope Leo III, Charlemagne ruled a Christian empire that was nearly coterminous with Western Christendom. The emperor himself consciously promoted Christian values as he understood them, and he also negotiated with the Eastern Roman emperor for recognition of his title.
In the 10th century the Ottonian dynasty revived the Carolingian imperial model. Otto I deposed the pope, who had crowned him emperor and appointed another, and Otto II styled himself “Emperor Augustus of the Romans.” The Ottonians also claimed the imperial title in traditional Roman fashion—by right of conquest. In 1034 Conrad II used outright the term Roman Empire in reference to the union of Germany, Italy, and Burgundy.
It was not, however, until the 12th century—in the wake of the Investiture Controversy, which had undermined the traditional claims of the emperor’s place in the world—that the notion of a “holy empire” explicitly emerged. Influenced by the revival of Roman law, the chancery of Frederick Barbarossa adopted the term sacrum imperium as a counterblast to the universal claims of the church. For Barbarossa the empire was a divinely ordained entity independent of church authority. The title Holy Roman Empire itself finally appeared during the extended controversy between the Hohenstaufen dynasty and the papacy in the 13th century, and, therefore, it is correctly applied only to the great central European empire after that time.
The posting of the theses
Luther was long believed to have posted the theses on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, but the historicity of this event has been questioned. The issue is discussed at length in Erwin Iserloh’s Luther zwischen Reform und Reformation (1966; published in English [1968] as The Theses Were Not Posted). Iserloh indicated that the first known reference to the story was made by Philipp Melanchthon in 1546 and that Luther never mentioned the posting of his theses on the church door. He suggested that Luther wrote to the bishops on October 31, 1517, did not receive an answer, and then circulated the theses among friends and learned acquaintances.
Some later research, however, lent support to the traditional belief. In his contribution to Luthers thesenanschlag: faktum oder fiktion (2008; “Luther’s Posting of the Theses: Fact or Fiction”), for example, Martin Treu discussed a note written by Georg Rörer, a close collaborator of Luther’s, in a copy of the New Testament that he and Luther used for revisions of the Bible. The note read:
In the year of our Lord 1517, on the eve of All Saints’…[theses] about indulgences…were posted on the doors of the churches in Wittenberg by Dr. Martin Luther.
But Rörer, like Melanchthon, was not a witness to the event and could have merely assumed that the posting had taken place in keeping with the statutes of the university at Wittenberg requiring that theses for public debate be posted on the doors of all Wittenberg churches. Scholars remain divided on the question.
Article Contributors
Primary Contributors
- Karl A. Schleunes
- Henry Ashby Turner
- Kenneth Barkin
- Charles Calvert Bayley
- Lawrence G. Duggan
- William H. Berentsen
- George Hall Kirby
- Thomas Henry Elkins
- Patrick J. Geary
- James J. Sheehan
- Peter John Heather
- K.J. Leyser
- John Michael Wallace-Hadrill
- Theodore S. Hamerow
- Gerald Strauss
- The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Other Contributors
- Joshua Tatro
Other Encyclopedia Britannica Contributors
- Adam Augustyn
- Heather Campbell
- Swati Chopra
- World Data Editors
- Aakanksha Gaur
- Maren Goldberg
- Erik Gregersen
- John Higgins
- Michael Levy
- Robert Lewis
- Gita Liesangthem
- Gloria Lotha
- J.E. Luebering
- Deepti Mahajan
- Meg Matthias
- Richard Pallardy
- Melissa Petruzzello
- Michael Ray
- Veenu Setia
- Kathleen Sheetz
- Shiveta Singh
- Amy Tikkanen
- Jeff Wallenfeldt
- Grace Young
Article History
Type | Description | Contributor | Date |
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Added a cross-reference to gingerbread. | Dec 09, 2024 | ||
Updated currency exchange rate. | Dec 04, 2024 | ||
Added treatment of the administration of Olaf Sholz. | Nov 04, 2024 | ||
Link added. | Nov 10, 2023 | ||
Link added. | Oct 12, 2023 | ||
Media added. | Aug 25, 2023 | ||
Link added. | Aug 25, 2023 | ||
Country Profile: Cross-references added. | Aug 16, 2023 | ||
Links added. | Jul 20, 2023 | ||
Links and photo added. | May 11, 2023 | ||
Added cross-references. | Mar 17, 2023 | ||
Add new Web site: National Geographic Kids - Germany Facts. | Mar 07, 2022 | ||
Country Profile: Updated Head of government. | Dec 08, 2021 | ||
In the Leaders of Germany table, closed out the term of Angela Merkel and added Olaf Scholz. | Dec 08, 2021 | ||
Removed videos. | Jul 30, 2021 | ||
Noted that Berlin Brandenburg Airport opened. | May 19, 2021 | ||
Media added. | May 17, 2021 | ||
Rearranged media. | Oct 21, 2019 | ||
Added details of the AfD's performance in regional and national elections. | Oct 03, 2019 | ||
Add new Web site: Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook - Germany. | Jan 09, 2019 | ||
Revised demographic data. | Jul 12, 2018 | ||
Updated for the SPD's approval of a new grand coalition with the CDU-CSU. | Mar 05, 2018 | ||
Country Profile: Expanded country profile. | Feb 07, 2018 | ||
Updated for the 2017 general election. | Sep 25, 2017 | ||
Replaced photographs. | Apr 18, 2017 | ||
Country Profile: Updated head of state. | Mar 20, 2017 | ||
Add new Web site: Science Kids - Fun Science and Technology for Kids - Germany Facts for Kids. | Dec 05, 2016 | ||
Add new Web site: Easy Science for Kids - Germany. | Dec 05, 2016 | ||
Add new Web site: Cool Kid Facts - Germany Facts For Kids. | Dec 05, 2016 | ||
Add new Web site: National Geographic Kids - Countries - Germany. | Dec 05, 2016 | ||
Media added. | Aug 19, 2016 | ||
In Economy section, added data charts. | Jun 01, 2016 | ||
In People section, added data charts. | Jun 01, 2016 | ||
Added locator map to the Introduction. | May 04, 2016 | ||
Changed "Francis Ferdinand" to "Franz Ferdinand." | Jan 08, 2016 | ||
Added videos. | Aug 24, 2015 | ||
Media added. | Jun 08, 2015 | ||
Media added. | May 29, 2015 | ||
Added video. | May 19, 2015 | ||
Added video. | May 15, 2015 | ||
Added video. | May 14, 2015 | ||
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Media added. | Apr 14, 2015 | ||
Added video. | Mar 24, 2015 | ||
Added video. | Mar 18, 2015 | ||
Updated economic data. |
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Feb 24, 2015 | |
Added video. | Feb 24, 2015 | ||
Added video. | Feb 12, 2015 | ||
Added video. | Feb 06, 2015 | ||
Added video. | Feb 04, 2015 | ||
Added video. | Jan 29, 2015 | ||
Added video. | Dec 23, 2014 | ||
Added video. | Dec 17, 2014 | ||
Added video. | Dec 05, 2014 | ||
Added video. | Nov 26, 2014 | ||
Added video. | Nov 26, 2014 | ||
Added video. | Nov 25, 2014 | ||
Updated for the approval of the "grand coalition" government by SPD members. | Dec 16, 2013 | ||
Changed "SPD and CDU" to "CDU and CSU." | Sep 24, 2013 | ||
Noted results of the September 2013 federal election. | Sep 23, 2013 | ||
Updated for the 2013 federal election campaign. | Sep 20, 2013 | ||
Media added. | Feb 13, 2013 | ||
Add new Web site: Iloveindia.com - Germany. | Feb 08, 2013 | ||
Add new Web site: GlobalSecurity.org - Germany. | Feb 08, 2013 | ||
Add new Web site: Official Tourism Site of Germany. | Dec 07, 2012 | ||
Add new Web site: globalEDGE - Germany. | Dec 07, 2012 | ||
Add new Web site: Maps of World - Germany. | Dec 07, 2012 | ||
Add new Web site: European Union - Germany. | Dec 07, 2012 | ||
Cultural life section revised and updated. | Aug 28, 2012 | ||
Government and society section revised and updated. | Aug 28, 2012 | ||
Country Profile: Revised the number of members in the Bundestag. | Jul 10, 2012 | ||
Updated for the election of Joachim Gauck as president of Germany. | Mar 20, 2012 | ||
Country Profile: Updated for the election of Joachim Gauck as president. | Mar 19, 2012 | ||
Deleted map. | Mar 02, 2012 | ||
Country Profile: Changed form of government and capital. | Feb 27, 2012 | ||
Country Profile: Added name of head of state and head of government, along with urban-rural, life expectancy, literacy, and GNI per capita statistics. | Feb 27, 2012 | ||
Updated for the resignation of President Christian Wulff. | Feb 17, 2012 | ||
Clarified the start date of the Weimar Republic. | Jan 24, 2012 | ||
Country Profile: Added name of head of state and head of government. urban-rural, life expectancy, literacy, and GNI per capita statistics. | Sep 06, 2011 | ||
Add new Web site: Buzzle.com - Germany. | Aug 08, 2011 | ||
On July 1, 2011, conscription ended as the country adopted an all-volunteer military. | Jul 05, 2011 | ||
Revised with a more accurate translation of "Bundestag." | Apr 06, 2011 | ||
Country Profile: Changed Form of government. | Apr 06, 2011 | ||
National anthem added. | Dec 21, 2010 | ||
In 2010 the German government announced that it was suspending conscription in July 2011. | Nov 30, 2010 | ||
Updated History section with the government's decision to extend the life span of Germany's nuclear power plants. | Sep 07, 2010 | ||
Updated Economy section with the government's decision to extend the life span of Germany's nuclear power plants. | Sep 07, 2010 | ||
Added video of worker protests in East Berlin, 1953. | Jul 08, 2010 | ||
Date of The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari updated from 1919 to 1920. | Jun 10, 2010 | ||
Video of Hindenburg added to section The end of the republic. | Jun 10, 2010 | ||
Mentioned the reforms that made health insurance compulsory for all Germans. | Apr 16, 2010 | ||
Country Profile: Updated area and population figures. | Feb 23, 2010 | ||
Updated with the formation of Germany's new coalition government. | Oct 28, 2009 | ||
Added English translation of "Bundestag" ("Federal Diet"). | Oct 28, 2009 | ||
Country Profile: Updated Form of government; updated Capital. | Oct 20, 2009 | ||
Updated with the results of the 2009 elections. | Oct 07, 2009 | ||
Geologic time data updated. | Oct 06, 2009 | ||
Updated with the results of the 2009 elections. | Oct 06, 2009 | ||
Added new Web site: National Geographic - Travel - Germany. | Apr 20, 2009 | ||
Added new Web site: The Catholic Encyclopedia - Germans in the United States. | Jan 23, 2009 | ||
Added new Web site: Jewish Virtual Library - Germany. | Sep 09, 2008 | ||
Added new Web site: Official Site of German Embassy in Riyadh. | Jul 24, 2008 | ||
Updated political parties. | Jul 02, 2008 | ||
Updated political parties and use of referenda at local/state levels. | Jul 02, 2008 | ||
Economy section revised and updated. | Jul 02, 2008 | ||
Added new Web site: Official Site of the Embassy of Germany in Washington. | Jun 30, 2008 | ||
Added new Web site: Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook - Germany. | May 09, 2008 | ||
Added new Web site: British Broadcasting Corporation - Germany. | Jan 03, 2008 | ||
Media added. | Oct 25, 2007 | ||
Added new Web site: Center for Programs in Contemporary Writing - Germany. | May 01, 2007 | ||
Media added. | Feb 02, 2007 | ||
Added new Web site: Energy Information Administration - Germany. | Jan 19, 2007 | ||
Added new Web site: Library of Congress - Germany - Selected Internet Resources. | Aug 08, 2006 | ||
Added new Web site: Germany Info, from the German Embassy in Washington, DC. | Aug 07, 2006 | ||
Added new Web site: CIA - The World Factbook - Germany. | Jul 25, 2006 | ||
Article revised and updated. | Apr 06, 2006 | ||
Article revised. | Dec 07, 2005 | ||
Article revised. | Jun 06, 2005 | ||
Article revised. | Feb 18, 2005 | ||
Article revised. | Apr 15, 2004 | ||
Article revised. | Apr 27, 2001 | ||
Article revised. | Feb 29, 2000 | ||
Article revised. | Jan 12, 2000 | ||
Article added to new online database. | Sep 18, 1998 |