Intrusive igneous rocks
Erosion of volcanoes will immediately expose shallow intrusive bodies such as volcanic necks and diatremes (see ). A volcanic neck is the “throat” of a volcano and consists of a pipelike conduit filled with hypabyssal rocks. Ship Rock in New Mexico and Devil’s Tower in Wyoming are remnants of volcanic necks, which were exposed after the surrounding sedimentary rocks were eroded away. Many craterlike depressions may be filled with angular fragments of country rock (breccia) and juvenile pyroclastic debris. When eroded, such a depression exposes a vertical funnel-shaped pipe that resembles a volcanic neck with the exception of the brecciated filling. These pipes are dubbed diatremes. Many diatremes are formed by explosion resulting from the rapid expansion of gas—carbon dioxide and water vapour. These gases are released by the rising magma owing to the decrease in pressure as it nears the surface. Some diatremes contain kimberlite, a peridotite that contains a hydrous mineral called phlogopite. Kimberlite may contain diamonds.
Dikes are usually tabular bodies that may radiate from the central vent of a volcano or from a volcanic neck (see ). Not all dikes are associated with volcanoes, but they can be distinguished by their discordant relationship with the structure of the country rock that they cut across. Many dikes are only a few metres wide, but large ones, such as the dike that feeds the Muskox intrusion in the Northwest Territories of Canada, reach widths of more than 150 metres. Related to dikes are features that maintain a concordant relationship with the structure of the country rocks. Magmas may force their way between layers of country rock and solidify parallel to them to form sills (see ). On the west bank of the Hudson River opposite New York City, the 300-metre-thick Palisades sill is exposed and can be traced for 80 kilometres. A laccolith also is concordant with country rock, but it is distinguished from a sill by having a flat floor with a domed (mushroom-shaped) roof (see ). Laccoliths were first described in the Henry Mountains of Utah, where they may measure up to 200 metres thick with basal diameters exceeding three kilometres. Rocks of intermediate silica content generally make up these domed intrusions. In contrast, lopoliths are saucer-shaped bodies with a concave upward roof and floor and are commonly composed of mafic rocks. Lopoliths are huge in size; the Bushveld intrusive complex in South Africa, for example, has an area of about 66,000 square kilometres and an exposed thickness of 8 kilometres. The Muskox intrusion, mentioned above, is another large lopolith, which is estimated to be about 80 kilometres long and 11 kilometres wide (roof rocks covering part of the intrusion prevent an exact measurement). These lopoliths are commonly layered with igneous minerals and rocks; in the Bushveld intrusion, one layer about 1 metre thick consisting of almost pure chromite (an ore of chromium) extends for tens of kilometres. Large irregularly shaped plutons are called either stocks or batholiths (see ), depending on their sizes. Plutons larger than 100 square kilometres in area are termed batholiths, while those of lesser size are called stocks. It may be possible, however, that some stocks are the visible portions of batholiths that have not been exposed by erosion. Batholiths (from the Greek word bathos, meaning depth) are deep-seated crustal intrusions, whereas stocks may be formed at shallow depths only a few kilometres below the surface. Rocks ranging from quartz diorite to granite are commonly found in batholiths. Large batholiths in North America include the Sierra Nevada, the Idaho, and the Coast Range, which is about 600 kilometres long and 200 kilometres wide and extends from the Alaskan border through British Columbia to Washington state. Many pulses of intrusions contribute to the formation of these large bodies; for example, eight episodes of activity have been recognized in the Sierra Nevada batholith. They are formed, therefore, by the coalescence of many smaller batholiths and stocks.
Distribution of igneous rocks on Earth’s surface
Divergent plate boundaries
Most of the igneous activity on Earth is restricted to a narrow zone that is related intimately with the motions of the lithospheric plates. Indeed, the composition of the magma, the types of volcanism, and the characteristics of intrusions are governed to a large extent by plate tectonics. The magmatism at divergent plate boundaries along the crests of the oceanic rises and ridges is mostly unseen except in places where the volcanic activity occurs subaerially (e.g., Iceland, which sits on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge). Along these divergent boundaries, the erupted basalts have such a restricted compositional range that they are referred to as mid-ocean-ridge basalt (MORB). They are subalkaline tholeiites that contain olivine in the norm and less than 0.25 percent potash. The chemistry suggests that MORB was generated from a mantle that was depleted of volatile elements (e.g., lanthanum [La], cerium [Ce], sodium, and potassium) in a previous partial melting process. A wide rift valley marks the crest of most of the oceanic ridges and rises. The valley is bounded by faults created by the divergent forces and is floored in its centre by a fracture zone (a mass of rock with many small breakages). These faults and fractures are the conduits for the MORB magmas that flood the valley, build volcanoes, and produce dikes by filling the conduits. Layer 2 of the oceanic crust results from these magmatic activities (see ). As the plates diverge, MORB becomes the ocean floor on which oceanic sediments (layer 1) are deposited. This makes MORB the most abundant rock on the surface of Earth.
Below the collection of lavas and dikes in layer 2 are found gabbro and diorite. They represent the plutonic rocks formed as a result of differentiation of the MORB magma that fed the volcanic activity along the rift. (Differentiation is the process in which more than one rock type is derived from a single parent magma.) These coarse-grained intrusives account for about 4 to 5 kilometres of layer 3, which rests on a sequence of layered ultramafic rocks. The rocks were formed by the gravitative accumulation of mafic minerals from the original MORB magma that filled a large chamber below the ridge axis. Below this layered sequence is mantle rock that is highly deformed and depleted (of elements such as lanthanum, cerium, sodium, and potassium that have been removed by repeated partial melting). Because seismic waves cannot distinguish between layered ultramafic rocks, which are not true mantle rocks, and ultramafic mantle rocks, the Moho actually is positioned between layer 3 and the layered ultramafics. The sequences consisting of layer 1 (limestone and chert sedimentary rocks), layer 2 of MORB lavas and dikes, and layer 3 of gabbro and diorite and the ultramafic rocks are known as ophiolites. Many geologists believe that ophiolites formed at oceanic ridges were emplaced by tectonic forces at convergent plate boundaries and then became exposed in highly deformed orogenic (mountain) belts. In fact, the same sequences of rocks were first reported in the Alps and were considered deep-seated intrusions. Some geologists still argue that all ophiolites were not formed at divergent plate boundaries.
Away from the axis of divergence, the composition of the volcanic rocks becomes more diverse. Most of the magmatism is related to hot spots, which are hot rising plumes of mantle rock that are anchored beneath the moving lithospheric plates (see ). The Hawaiian Islands owe their existence to the magmatism associated with a hot spot that currently is located just southeast of the large island of Hawaii. This mantle plume not only provides magma for the eruptions at Kilauea Volcano but also is responsible for the submarine volcano named Loihi that will eventually become a new island. Most of the islands are built on a tholeiite basalt base, but the caps of the volcanoes are alkali basalts. The final episodes of volcanic activity on an island are extremely undersaturated; nephelinites and olivine melilite nephelinites are common products. The alkali basalts have differentiated to more silica-rich compositions, with hawaiites, mugearites, and trachytes being erupted in minor amounts. The two active volcanoes on Hawaii, Mauna Loa and Kilauea, are still erupting tholeiite basalts. Tholeiites on all the islands far from the ocean ridge crests are different from MORB in that they are enriched in lanthanum, cerium, sodium, and potassium. Early in Earth’s history, a high-magnesium, high-temperature mafic magma called komatiite erupted from hot spots. Since most komatiites are only found in Archean regions, they are thought to be evidence for Earth being hotter than when it was initially formed. The youngest komatiite was recently discovered on the island of Gorgona, Colom.