adrenal gland

adrenal gland, either of two small triangular endocrine glands one of which is located above each kidney. In humans each adrenal gland weighs about 5 grams (0.18 ounce) and measures about 30 mm (1.2 inches) wide, 50 mm (2 inches) long, and 10 mm (0.4 inch) thick. Each gland consists of two parts: an inner medulla, which produces epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline and noradrenaline), and an outer cortex, which produces steroid hormones. The two parts differ in embryological origin, structure, and function. The adrenal glands vary in size, shape, and nerve supply in other animal species. In some vertebrates the cells of the two parts are interspersed to varying degrees.

Adrenal medulla

The adrenal medulla is embedded in the centre of the cortex of each adrenal gland. It is small, making up only about 10 percent of the total adrenal weight. The adrenal medulla is composed of chromaffin cells that are named for the granules within the cells that darken after exposure to chromium salts. These cells migrate to the adrenal medulla from the embryonic neural crest and represent specialized neural tissue. Indeed, the adrenal medulla is an integral part of the sympathetic nervous system, a major subdivision of the autonomic nervous system (see human nervous system). The sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla are collectively known as the sympathoadrenal system. The chromaffin granules contain the hormones of the adrenal medulla, which include dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. When stimulated by sympathetic nerve impulses, the chromaffin granules are released from the cells and the hormones enter the circulation, a process known as exocytosis. Thus, the adrenal medulla is a neurohemal organ.

Adrenal cortex

Cells of the adrenal cortex synthesize and secrete chemical derivatives (steroids) of cholesterol. While cholesterol can be synthesized in many body tissues, further modification into steroid hormones takes place only in the adrenal cortex and its embryological cousins, the ovaries and the testes. In adult humans the outer cortex comprises about 90 percent of each adrenal gland. It is composed of three structurally different concentric zones. From the outside in, they are the zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and zona reticularis.

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The zona glomerulosa produces aldosterone, which acts on the kidneys to conserve salt and water. The inner two zones of the adrenal cortex—the zona fasciculata and the zona reticularis—function as a physiological unit to produce cortisol and adrenal androgens (male hormones), with dehydroepiandrosterone, a weak androgen, being the major product. Cortisol has two primary actions: (1) stimulation of gluconeogenesis—i.e., the breakdown of protein and fat in muscle and their conversion to glucose in the liver—and (2) anti-inflammatory actions. Cortisol and synthetic derivatives of it, such as prednisone and dexamethasone, are known as glucocorticoids, so named because of their ability to stimulate gluconeogenesis. In severely stressed patients these compounds not only facilitate glucose production but also raise blood pressure and reduce inflammation. Because of their anti-inflammatory properties, they are often given to patients with inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and asthma. Glucocorticoids also reduce the function and action of the immune system, making them useful for protecting against transplant rejection and ameliorating autoimmune and allergic diseases.

Regulation of adrenal hormone secretion

The secretion of cortisol and aldosterone is regulated by different mechanisms. The secretion of cortisol is regulated by the classical hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal feedback system. The major determinant that controls the secretion of cortisol is corticotropin (adrenocorticotropin; ACTH). In normal subjects there is both pulsatile and diurnal (referred to as a circadian rhythm) secretion of corticotropin, which causes pulsatile and diurnal secretion of cortisol. Variations in the secretion of corticotropin are caused by variations in the secretion of corticotropin-releasing hormone by the hypothalamus and by variations in serum cortisol concentrations. An increase in serum cortisol concentrations inhibits the secretion of both corticotropin-releasing hormone and corticotropin. Conversely, a decrease in serum cortisol concentration results in an increase in the secretion of corticotropin-releasing hormone and corticotropin, thereby restoring the secretion of cortisol to normal concentrations. However, if the adrenal glands are unable to respond to stimulation by corticotropin, decreased serum cortisol concentrations will persist. Severe physical or emotional stresses stimulate the secretion of corticotropin-releasing hormone and corticotropin, resulting in large increases in serum cortisol concentrations. However, under these circumstances, increased serum cortisol concentrations do not inhibit the secretion of corticotropin-releasing hormone or corticotropin and thereby allow large amounts of cortisol to be secreted until the stress subsides. Corticotropin also stimulates the secretion of adrenal androgens from the adrenal cortex, but the androgens do not inhibit corticotropin secretion.

Aldosterone secretion is regulated primarily by the renin-angiotensin system. Renin is an enzyme secreted into the blood from specialized cells that encircle the arterioles (small arteries) at the entrance to the glomeruli of the kidneys (the renal capillary networks that are the filtration units of the kidney). The renin-secreting cells, which compose the juxtaglomerular apparatus, are sensitive to changes in blood flow and blood pressure, and the primary stimulus for increased renin secretion is decreased blood flow to the kidneys. A decrease in blood flow may be caused by loss of sodium and water (as a result of diarrhea, persistent vomiting, or excessive perspiration) or by narrowing of a renal artery. Renin catalyzes the conversion of a plasma protein called angiotensinogen into a decapeptide (consisting of 10 amino acids) called angiotensin I. An enzyme in the serum called angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) then converts angiotensin I into an octapeptide (consisting of eight amino acids) called angiotensin II. Angiotensin II acts via specific receptors in the adrenal glands to stimulate the secretion of aldosterone, which stimulates salt and water reabsorption by the kidneys, and the constriction of arterioles, which causes an increase in blood pressure. Aldosterone secretion is also stimulated by high serum potassium concentrations (hyperkalemia) and to a lesser extent by corticotropin. Excessive aldosterone production or excessive renin secretion, which leads to excessive angiotensin and aldosterone production, can cause high blood pressure (see hyperaldosteronism).

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Diseases of the adrenal glands

Diseases of the adrenal glands may be divided into those of the medulla and those of the cortex. The only known disease of the adrenal medulla is a tumour known as a pheochromocytoma. Pheochromocytomas secrete excessive quantities of epinephrine and norepinephrine. Many patients with these tumours have periodic episodes of hypertension (high blood pressure), palpitations of the heart, sweating, headaches, and anxiety, whereas other patients have persistently high blood pressure. High blood pressure and other symptoms can be treated with drugs that block the action of epinephrine and norepinephrine; however, the most effective treatment is surgical removal of the tumour. Diseases of the adrenal cortex may be manifested as hyperfunction (excessive secretion of adrenocortical hormones) or hypofunction (insufficient secretion of these hormones), also known as Addison disease.

Adrenocortical hyperfunction may be congenital or acquired. Congenital hyperfunction is always due to hyperplasia (enlargement) of both adrenal glands, whereas acquired hyperfunction may be due to either an adrenal tumour or hyperplasia. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, also known as adrenogenital syndrome, is a disorder in which there is an inherited defect in one of the enzymes needed for the production of cortisol. Excessive amounts of adrenal androgens must be produced to overcome the block in cortisol production. In female infants this results in masculinization with pseudohermaphroditism (anomalous development of genital organs), whereas in male infants it results in premature sexual development (sexual precocity).

Acquired adrenocortical hyperfunction is manifested by either cortisol excess (Cushing syndrome), androgen excess, or aldosterone excess (primary aldosteronism). Cushing syndrome is characterized by obesity, rounding and reddening of the face, high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, thinning and easy bruising of the skin, muscle weakness, depression, and, in women, cessation of menstrual cycles (amenorrhea). The major causes of Cushing syndrome are a corticotropin-producing tumour of the pituitary gland (known as Cushing disease), production of corticotropin by a nonendocrine tumour, or a benign or malignant adrenal tumour. All these disorders are treated most effectively by surgical removal of the tumour. Androgen excess in women is characterized by excessive hair growth on the face and other regions and amenorrhea; in contrast, androgen excess has few effects in men. The major causes of adrenal androgen excess in adults are late-onset congenital adrenal hyperplasia and adrenal tumours.

Primary aldosteronism is characterized by high blood pressure, caused by increased retention of salt and water by the kidneys, and low serum potassium concentrations (hypokalemia), caused by excess excretion of potassium in the urine. The symptoms and signs of aldosterone excess include not only hypertension but also muscle weakness and cramps and increased thirst and urination. Primary aldosteronism is usually caused by a benign adrenal tumour (adenoma), but some patients have hyperplasia of both adrenal glands. Successful removal of the adrenal tumour usually results in reduction in blood pressure and cessation of potassium loss; patients with bilateral adrenal hyperplasia are treated with antihypertensive drugs.