China

Table of Contents

Introduction & Quick Facts
Land
- Relief
  - The eastern region
    - The Northeast Plain
    - The Changbai Mountains
    - The North China Plain
    - The Loess Plateau
    - The Shandong Hills
    - The Qin Mountains
    - The Sichuan Basin
    - The southeastern mountains
    - Plains of the middle and lower Yangtze
    - The Nan Mountains
  - The southwest
    - The Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau
    - The Plateau of Tibet
  - The northwest
    - The Tarim Basin
    - The Junggar Basin
    - The Tien Shan
- Drainage
- Soils
- Climate
  - The air masses
  - Temperature
  - Precipitation
- Plant and animal life
  - Flora
  - Animal life
People
- Ethnic groups
- Languages
  - Sino-Tibetan
  - Altaic
  - Other languages
- Religion
- Settlement patterns
  - Rural areas
  - Urban areas
- Demographic trends
  - Population growth
  - Population distribution
  - Internal migration
Economy
- General considerations
  - The role of the government
  - Economic policies
- Agriculture, forestry, and fishing
  - Farming and livestock
  - Forestry and fishing
- Resources and power
  - Minerals
  - Hydroelectric potential
  - Energy production
- Manufacturing
- Finance
- Trade
- Services
- Labor and taxation
- Transportation and telecommunications
  - Railways
  - Road networks
  - Waterways
  - Port facilities and shipping
  - Aviation
  - Posts and telecommunications
Government and society
- Parallel structure
- Constitutional framework
- Political process
  - Role of the CCP
  - Administration
- Justice
- Security
- Health and welfare
- Education
Cultural life
- Cultural milieu
- The arts
  - Literature
  - Visual arts
  - Performing arts
- Cultural institutions
- Daily life, sports, and recreation
- Media and publishing
History
- Prehistory in China
  - Archaeology in China
  - Early humans
  - Neolithic Period
    - Climate and environment
    - Food production
    - Major cultures and sites
      Incipient Neolithic
      6th millennium bce
      5th millennium bce
      4th and 3rd millennia bce
      Regional cultures of the Late Neolithic
    - Religious beliefs and social organization
- The first historical dynasty: the Shang
  - The advent of bronze casting
  - The Shang dynasty
    - Royal burials
    - The chariot
    - Art
    - Late Shang divination and religion
    - State and society
- The Zhou and Qin dynasties
  - The history of the Zhou (1046–256 bce)
    - Zhou and Shang
    - The Zhou feudal system
  - Social, political, and cultural changes
    - The decline of feudalism
    - Urbanization and assimilation
    - The rise of monarchy
    - Economic development
    - Cultural change
  - The Qin empire (221–207 bce)
    - The Qin state
    - Struggle for power
    - The empire
- The Han dynasty
  - Dynastic authority and the succession of emperors
    - Xi (Western) Han
      Prelude to the Han
      The imperial succession
      From Wudi to Yuandi
      From Chengdi to Wang Mang
    - Dong (Eastern) Han
  - The administration of the Han empire
    - The structure of government
      The civil service
      Provincial government
      The armed forces
    - The practice of government
  - Relations with other peoples
  - Cultural developments
- The Six Dynasties
  - Political developments
    - The division of China
      Sanguo (Three Kingdoms; 220–280 ce)
      The Xi (Western) Jin (265–316/317 ce)
    - The era of foreign invasions and rule
      The Dong (Eastern) Jin (317–420) and later dynasties in the south (420–589)
      The Shiliuguo (Sixteen Kingdoms) in the north (303–439)
  - Intellectual and religious trends
    - Confucianism and philosophical Daoism
    - Daoism
    - Buddhism
- The Sui dynasty
  - Wendi’s institutional reforms
  - Integration of the south
  - Foreign affairs under Yangdi
- The Tang dynasty
  - Early Tang (618–626)
    - Administration of the state
    - Fiscal and legal system
  - The period of Tang power (626–755)
    - The “era of good government”
    - Rise of the empress Wuhou
    - Prosperity and progress
    - Military reorganization
  - Late Tang (755–907)
    - Provincial separatism
    - The struggle for central authority
  - Cultural developments
    - The influence of Buddhism
    - Trends in the arts
  - Social change
    - Decline of the aristocracy
    - Population movements
    - Growth of the economy
- The Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms
  - The Wudai (Five Dynasties)
  - The Shiguo (Ten Kingdoms)
- The “barbarians”: Tangut, Khitan, and Juchen
  - The Tangut
  - The Khitan
  - The Juchen
- The Song dynasty
  - Bei (Northern) Song (960–1127)
    - Unification
    - Consolidation
    - Reforms
    - Decline and fall
  - Nan (Southern) Song (1127–1279)
    - Survival and consolidation
    - Relations with the Juchen
    - The court’s relations with the bureaucracy
    - The chief councillors
    - The bureaucratic style
    - The clerical staff
    - The rise of neo-Confucianism
    - Internal solidarity during the decline of the Nan Song
  - Song culture
- The Yuan, or Mongol, dynasty
  - The Mongol conquest of China
    - Invasion of the Jin state
    - Invasion of the Song state
  - China under the Mongols
    - Mongol government and administration
      Early Mongol rule
      Changes under Kublai Khan and his successors
      Economy
    - Religious and intellectual life
      Daoism
      Buddhism
      Foreign religions
      Confucianism
      Literature
      The arts
    - Yuan China and the West
    - The end of Mongol rule
- The Ming dynasty
  - Political history
    - The dynasty’s founder
    - The dynastic succession
  - Government and administration
    - Local government
    - Central government
    - Later innovations
  - Foreign relations
  - Economic policy and developments
    - Population
    - Agriculture
    - Taxation
    - Coinage
  - Culture
    - Philosophy and religion
    - Fine arts
    - Literature and scholarship
- The early Qing dynasty
  - The rise of the Manchu
  - The Qing empire
    - Political institutions
    - Foreign relations
    - Economic development
  - Qing society
    - Social organization
    - State and society
    - Trends in the early Qing
- Late Qing
  - Western challenge, 1839–60
    - The first Opium War and its aftermath
    - The anti-foreign movement and the second Opium War (Arrow War)
  - Popular uprising
    - The Taiping Rebellion
    - The Nian Rebellion
    - Muslim rebellions
    - Effects of the rebellions
  - The Self-Strengthening Movement
    - Foreign relations in the 1860s
    - Industrialization for “self-strengthening”
  - Changes in outlying areas
    - East Turkistan
    - Tibet and Nepal
    - Myanmar (Burma)
    - Vietnam
    - Japan and the Ryukyu Islands
    - Korea and the Sino-Japanese War
  - Reform and upheaval
    - The Hundred Days of Reform of 1898
    - The Boxer Rebellion
  - Reformist and revolutionist movements at the end of the dynasty
    - Sun Yat-sen and the United League
    - Constitutional movements after 1905
    - The Chinese Revolution (1911–12)
- The early republican period
  - The development of the republic (1912–20)
    - Early power struggles
    - China in World War I
      Japanese gains
      Yuan’s attempts to become emperor
      Conflict over entry into the war
      Formation of a rival southern government
      Wartime changes
    - Intellectual movements
      An intellectual revolution
      Riots and protests
  - The interwar years (1920–37)
    - Beginnings of a national revolution
      The Nationalist Party
      The Chinese Communist Party
      Communist-Nationalist cooperation
    - Reactions to warlords and foreigners
      Militarism in China
      The foreign presence
      Reorganization of the KMT
    - Struggles within the two-party coalition
      Clashes with foreigners
      KMT opposition to radicals
      The Northern Expedition
      Expulsion of communists from the KMT
    - The Nationalist government from 1928 to 1937
      Japanese aggression
      War between Nationalists and communists
      The United Front against Japan
- The late republican period
  - The war against Japan (1937–45)
    - The Sino-Japanese War
      Phase one
      Phase two: stalemate and stagnation
      Renewed communist-Nationalist conflict
    - The international alliance against Japan
      U.S. aid to China
      Conflicts within the international alliance
      Phase three: approaching crisis (1944–45)
      Nationalist deterioration
      Communist growth
      Efforts to prevent civil war
  - Civil war (1945–49)
    - A race for territory
      Attempts to end the war
      Resumption of fighting
    - The tide begins to shift
      A land revolution
      The decisive year, 1948
    - Communist victory
- Establishment of the People’s Republic
  - Reconstruction and consolidation, 1949–52
  - The transition to socialism, 1953–57
    - Rural collectivization
    - Urban socialist changes
    - Political developments
    - Foreign policy
  - New directions in national policy, 1958–61
  - Readjustment and reaction, 1961–65
- The Cultural Revolution, 1966–76
  - Attacks on cultural figures
  - Attacks on party members
  - Seizure of power
  - The end of the radical period
  - Social changes
  - Struggle for the premiership
  - Consequences of the Cultural Revolution
- China after the death of Mao
  - Domestic developments
    - Readjustment and recovery
    - Economic policy changes
    - Political developments
    - Educational and cultural policy changes
    - COVID-19 outbreak
  - Allegations of human rights abuses
  - International relations
  - Relations with Taiwan
Leaders of the People’s Republic of China since 1949

References & Edit History Facts & Stats

Images, Videos & Interactives

Shanghai: financial district

Shanghai: Huangpu district

Explore the Great Wall of China

Physical features of China

Xinjiang, China: Kyrgyz mosque in the Pamirs

Mount Everest massif

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Videos

Explore the Great Wall of China

Explore the Great Wall of China

Overview of the Great Wall of China.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail © Yuri Yavnik/Dreamstime.com

Garlic farming in Cangshan District, China

Garlic farming in Cangshan District, China

Garlic farming in northern China.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail © Lei Xu/Dreamstime.com

Chinese sculpture during the Han dynasty examined

Chinese sculpture during the Han dynasty examined

A discussion of Chinese art, from the documentary China: West Meets East at the...

Video: Great Museums Television (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

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How did World War II affect China?

Learn more about the impact of World War II on China's history.

Video: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The secret to brewing a good cup of tea

The secret to brewing a good cup of tea

Learn about tea, from cultivation to brewing.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail © Sunwaylight13/Dreamstime.com

Investigate devastation wrought by Japan on Manchuria and China during the Great Depression

Investigate devastation wrought by Japan on Manchuria and China during the Great Depression

In September 1931 the Japanese Imperial Army invaded Manchuria, and refugees fled...

Video: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

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Learn more about China's one-child policy.

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Images

China

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

China

China

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

China

China

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Shanghai: financial district

Shanghai: financial district

Water's edge view of the Shanghai financial district and Huangpu River, China.

© Jeremy Woodhouse/Getty Images

Shanghai: Huangpu district

Shanghai: Huangpu district

Huangpu district in Shanghai at night.

Geoff Tompkinson/GTImage.com (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Physical features of China

Physical features of China

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Xinjiang, China: Kyrgyz mosque in the Pamirs

Xinjiang, China: Kyrgyz mosque in the Pamirs

Kyrgyz mosque in the Pamirs, western Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang, China.

Dugald Bremner/Stone

Mount Everest massif

Mount Everest massif

The Mount Everest massif, Himalayas, Nepal.

© Marta/stock.adobe.com

Da Hinggan (Greater Khingan) Range

Da Hinggan (Greater Khingan) Range

Da Hinggan (Greater Khingan) Range, southeast of Hailar, Inner Mongolia Autonomous...

Richard Harrington/Comstock

Yan River in the Loess Plateau

Yan River in the Loess Plateau

The Yan River at Yan'an, Shaanxi province, China, in the eastern portion of the Loess...

A.Topping—Rapho/Photo Researchers

Tibet Autonomous Region: stupa on the Yarlung Zangbo

Tibet Autonomous Region: stupa on the Yarlung Zangbo

Stupa on the bank of the Yarlung Zangbo (Brahmaputra) River, southern Tibet Autonomous...

© Naomi Duguid/Asia Access

Kunlun Mountains

Kunlun Mountains

The western Kunlun Mountains, near Mazar, southwestern Uygur Autonomous Region of...

© Jeffrey Alford/Asia Access

Bogda Mountains: Tian Lake

Bogda Mountains: Tian Lake

Tian Lake in the Bogda Mountains in the eastern Tien Shan, Uygur Autonomous Region...

K. Scholz/Shostal Associates

Yellow River (Huang He): junks

Yellow River (Huang He): junks

Junks on the silt-laden Yellow River (Huang He) near Zhengzhou, Henan province, China.

Tim Megarry/Robert Harding Picture Library

China: terrace farming

China: terrace farming

Rice terraces, Guilin, China.

Anna Frodesiak

cottage of Du Fu: bamboo grove

cottage of Du Fu: bamboo grove

Bamboo grove in the garden surrounding the cottage of Tang dynasty poet Du Fu, in...

Joan Lebold Cohen/Photo Researchers

Huang Mountains

Huang Mountains

Pine branch framing peaks in the Huang Mountains, Anhui province, China.

John Wang/Shostal Associates

giant panda

giant panda

A young giant panda sitting in a tree, China.

© Anatoly Kolodey/Fotolia

General ethnic composition of China

General ethnic composition of China

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Mount Tai: Temples

Mount Tai: Temples

Temples on the slopes of Mount Tai, one of the five holy mountains of China, Shandong...

© Boris Stroujko/Shutterstock.com

Lhasa, Tibet, China: Potala Palace

Lhasa, Tibet, China: Potala Palace

Potala Palace, a popular pilgrimage destination for Tibetan Buddhists, in Lhasa,...

CQYoung—iStock/Thinkstock

Guangxi: traditional housing

Guangxi: traditional housing

Traditional housing alongside hillsides used for terrace farming, Zhuang Autonomous...

© Delphotostock/Fotolia

Hailar, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China

Hailar, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China

Street in Hailar, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China.

Richard Harrington/Comstock

China: irrigated rice paddies

China: irrigated rice paddies

Irrigated rice paddies, China.

R.C. Hunt/Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Guangxi: fishing in the Li River

Guangxi: fishing in the Li River

Fisherman and his trained cormorants on the Li River, northeastern Zhuang Autonomous...

© cchfoto/stock.adobe.com

Lanzhou, Gansu province, China: petroleum refinery

Lanzhou, Gansu province, China: petroleum refinery

Petroleum refinery at Lanzhou, Gansu province, China.

Marc Riboud/Magnum

Three Gorges Dam

Three Gorges Dam

Three Gorges Dam, near Yichang, Hubei province, China.

Yao YilongImaginechina/AP Images

Anshan, Liaoning province, China: rolling mill

Anshan, Liaoning province, China: rolling mill

Rolling mill at an iron and steel plant in Anshan, Liaoning province, China.

Greenhill/Black Star

China: currency

China: currency

Chinese 100-yuan (renminbi) banknote (front side).

Courtesy of Frank Feng

China: currency

China: currency

Chinese 100-yuan (renminbi) banknote (back side).

Courtesy of Frank Feng

I.M. Pei: Bank of China Tower

I.M. Pei: Bank of China Tower

Bank of China Tower (center), Hong Kong, designed by I.M. Pei, 1989.

WiNG

China: highway construction

China: highway construction

Section of elevated highway under construction in Chongqing, China.

© Harald Høiland Tjøstheim/Shutterstock.com

Suzhou, Jiangsu province, China: Grand Canal

Suzhou, Jiangsu province, China: Grand Canal

Cargo barges on the Grand Canal at Suzhou, Jiangsu province, China.

© Susan Pierres/Peter Arnold, Inc.

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Dalian, Liaoning province, China: harbor

Chinese-built passenger steamer in the harbor at Dalian, Liaoning province, China.

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shipping

Terminal with stacks of containers waiting for shipping or delivery, Hong Kong.

© LeeYiuTung/iStock.com

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COVID-19: prevention

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Shang dynasty: oracle bone

Shang dynasty: oracle bone

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© Werner Forman—Universal Images Group/Getty Images

Du Fu

Du Fu

Du Fu.

The Art Archive/Shutterstock.com

Jingxi (Peking opera) troupe performance

Jingxi (Peking opera) troupe performance

A jingxi (Peking opera) troupe performing a scene from The Real and...

© Wu Gang/Liaison International

jingxi

jingxi

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© Diego Azubel—EPA/REX/Shutterstock.com

Palace Museum

Palace Museum

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Qin tomb: terra-cotta statues

Qin tomb: terra-cotta statues

Some of the excavated statues at the Qin tomb, Shaanxi province, China.

© heckepics/iStock.com

Chinese cuisine

Chinese cuisine

Assorted Chinese dishes.

© its_al_dente/Shutterstock.com

Tiananmen Square: National Day

Tiananmen Square: National Day

People gathering to celebrate National Day in Tiananmen Square, Beijing.

© Eastimages/Shutterstock.com

principal sites of prehistoric and Shang China

principal sites of prehistoric and Shang China

Adapted from A. Herrmann, An Historical Atlas of China (1966); Aldine Publishing Company

Zhoukoudian

Zhoukoudian

The Zhoukoudian archaeological site, near Beijing.

Ian Armstrong

Neolithic Banshan pottery: funerary urn

Neolithic Banshan pottery: funerary urn

Painted Pottery funerary urn, Neolithic Banshan phase, c. 3000 bce,...

Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities (MFEA), Östasiatiska Museet, Stockholm

Neolithic Longshan pottery: stem cup

Neolithic Longshan pottery: stem cup

Black pottery stem cup, Neolithic Longshan culture, c. late 3rd millennium

Wang Lu/ChinaStock Photo Library

Shang dynasty: bronze jia

Shang dynasty: bronze jia

Bronze jia, Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 bce);...

The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri (Nelson Fund)

Shang dynasty: goblet

Shang dynasty: goblet

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Wang Lu/ChinaStock Photo Library

Shang dynasty: oracle bone inscriptions

Shang dynasty: oracle bone inscriptions

Oracle bone inscriptions from the village of Xiaotun, Henan province, China; Shang...

By permission of the Syndics of the Cambridge University Library

Zhou dynasty: ceremonial bronze jian

Zhou dynasty: ceremonial bronze jian

Ceremonial bronze jian, Dong (Eastern) Zhou dynasty (770–256 bce);...

Courtesy of the Minneapolis Institute of Arts

China

China

China under the Han emperor Wudi (c. 100 bce)...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Zhou dynasty: wood bowl

Zhou dynasty: wood bowl

Wood bowl decorated in red and black lacquer with stylized birds and animals, from...

Courtesy of the Seattle Art Museum, Washington

Confucius

Confucius

Confucius, statue in Beijing.

RPedrosa—iStock/Thinkstock

Qin tomb: terra-cotta soldiers

Qin tomb: terra-cotta soldiers

Portion of the army of terra-cotta soldiers and horses found in the tomb of the Qin...

© iemily/Fotolia

Lady Dai (Xin Zhui): funerary banner

Lady Dai (Xin Zhui): funerary banner

Funerary banner from the tomb of Lady Dai (Xin Zhui), Mawangdui, Hunan province,...

Wang Lu/ChinaStock Photo Library

Han dynasty: Horse and Swallow tomb sculpture

Han dynasty: Horse and Swallow tomb sculpture

Horse and Swallow, bronze sculpture from the tomb of General Chang, Leitai,...

Robert Harding Picture Library

Great Wall of China

Great Wall of China

The Han dynasty expanded the boundaries of China and further extended the Great Wall...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

scenes from the Wu family tomb

scenes from the Wu family tomb

Scenes from the tomb of the Wu family in Shandong province, China, stone rubbing,...

Courtesy of the Philadelphia Museum of Art, gift of Horace H.F. Jayne

China in the Six Dynasties period (c. 500)

China in the Six Dynasties period (c. 500)

E. Reischauer and J. Fairbank, East Asia:The Great Tradition, copyright © 1958 and 1960 by Edwin o. Reischauer and John K. Fairbank, published by Houghton Mifflin Company

Longmen Caves: statues of disciples of the Buddha

Longmen Caves: statues of disciples of the Buddha

Statues of disciples of the Buddha, Longmen Caves, Luoyang, Henan province, China.

© BigGabig—iStock/Getty Images

Tang dynasty: ceramic tomb figure

Tang dynasty: ceramic tomb figure

Ceramic tomb figure decorated in characteristic colored glazes, Tang dynasty (618–907);...

Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London

Taizong

Taizong

Taizong, detail of a portrait; in the National Palace Museum, Taipei.

Courtesy of the National Palace Museum, Taipei (Open Government Data License, version 1.0)

Li Zhaodao: Minghuang's Journey to Shu

Li Zhaodao: Minghuang's Journey to Shu

Minghuang's Journey to Shu, ink and color on silk hanging scroll, attributed...

National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan

Guanyin and bodhisattvas

Guanyin and bodhisattvas

Guanyin and attendant bodhisattvas, detail of a painted mural, early 8th century,...

Chen Zhi'an/ChinaStock Photo Library

Nanchan Temple

Nanchan Temple

Main hall of Nanchan Temple, Mount Wutai, Shanxi province, China, 782 ce...

Christopher Liu/ChinaStock Photo Library

Tōdai Temple: mirror back

Tōdai Temple: mirror back

Mirror back, cloisonné enamel on silver, Chinese, Tang dynasty, 9th century; in the...

Courtesy of the Shôsô-In Treasure House

China: Hou Liang period

China: Hou Liang period

China during the period of the Hou (Later) Liang dynasty (907–923).

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

China: Hou Tang period

China: Hou Tang period

China during the period of the Hou (Later) Tang dynasty (923–936/937).

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

China: Hou Jin and Hou Han periods

China: Hou Jin and Hou Han periods

China during the period of the Hou (Later) Jin and Hou Han dynasties (936–946/947...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

China: Hou Zhou period

China: Hou Zhou period

China during the period of the Hou (Later) Zhou dynasty (951–960).

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Taizu

Taizu

Taizu, founder of the Song dynasty, detail of a portrait; in the National Palace...

Courtesy of the National Palace Museum, Taipei (Open Government Data License, version 1.0)

Zhenshu calligraphy

Zhenshu calligraphy

Zhenshu (“regular style”) calligraphy, written by the emperor Huizong (reigned 1100–1125/26),...

Courtesy of the National Palace Museum, Taipei

Ma Lin: Spring Fragrance, Clearing After Rain

Ma Lin: Spring Fragrance, Clearing After Rain

Spring Fragrance, Clearing After Rain, ink and slight color on silk album...

National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China

Zhu Xi

Zhu Xi

Zhu Xi, ink on paper by an unknown artist; in the National Palace Museum, Taipei.

Courtesy of the National Palace Museum, Taipei (Open Government Data License, version 1.0)

Longquan celadon wine jar and cover

Longquan celadon wine jar and cover

Longquan celadon wine jar and cover with light bluish green glaze, Song dynasty,...

Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London

Cai Wenji

Cai Wenji

A Mongol encampment, detail from the Cai Wenji scroll, a Chinese hand scroll of the...

Courtesy of Asia Society Galleries, New York

Yuan (Mongol) Empire c. 1300

Yuan (Mongol) Empire c. 1300

The Yuan (Mongol) Empire (c. 1300), showing the extent reached under Kublai Khan.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Fogong Temple: timber pagoda

Fogong Temple: timber pagoda

Timber pagoda of the Fogong Temple, 1056, Song dynasty; at Yingxian, Shanxi province,...

Christopher Liu/ChinaStock Photo Library

Zhao Mengfu: example of xingshu

Zhao Mengfu: example of xingshu

Example of xingshu by Zhao Mengfu, Yuan dynasty; in the National Palace...

Courtesy of the National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China

Ren Renfa: Nine Horses

Ren Renfa: Nine Horses

Nine Horses, detail of a hand scroll by Ren Renfa, ink and colors on silk,...

The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri; purchase Nelson Trust (72-8)

Zhu Yuanzhang

Zhu Yuanzhang

The Hongwu emperor Zhu Yuanzhang, hanging scroll, ink and color on silk, 14th century;...

Courtesy of the National Palace Museum, Taipei (Open Government Data License, version 1.0)

Shen Zhou: Poet on a Mountain Top

Shen Zhou: Poet on a Mountain Top

Poet on a Mountain Top, ink on paper or ink and light color on paper, album...

The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri; purchase Nelson Trust (46–51/2)

Qing dynasty: silk dragon robe

Qing dynasty: silk dragon robe

Panel from an imperial Chinese silk dragon robe embroidered in silk and gold thread,...

Lee Boltin

Qianlong imperial throne

Qianlong imperial throne

Imperial Chinese throne of the Qianlong emperor (reigned 1735–96), red lacquer carved...

Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London; photograph, A.C. Cooper Ltd.

Qing dynasty: scholar's study

Qing dynasty: scholar's study

Chinese scholar's study, Beijing, Qing dynasty, late 18th or early 19th century.

Courtesy of the Philadelphia Museum of Art, given by Wright S. Ludington (in memory of his father)

Qing dynasty

Qing dynasty

China during the late Qing dynasty.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

clipper ship

clipper ship

The clipper ship Le-Rye-Moon, built for the opium trade, 19th-century wood...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Cixi

Cixi

Portrait of Cixi, empress dowager of China; oil on canvas by Herbert Vos, 1905–06;...

Harvard Art Museums

Hong Kong

Hong Kong

Map of Hong Kong c. 1900 from the 10th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Sun Yat-sen (Sun Zhongshan)

Sun Yat-sen (Sun Zhongshan)

Sun Yat-sen (Sun Zhongshan).

Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (LC-USZ62-5972)

Li Yuanhong

Li Yuanhong

Li Yuanhong.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Mao Zedong

Mao Zedong

Mao Zedong.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Sun Yat-sen (Sun Zhongshan) and Song Qingling (Soong Ch'ing-ling)

Sun Yat-sen (Sun Zhongshan) and Song Qingling (Soong Ch'ing-ling)

Sun Yat-sen (Sun Zhongshan) and his wife, Song Qingling (Soong Ch'ing-ling), en route...

Bettmann/Corbis

Wang Ching-wei (Wang Jingwei)

Wang Ching-wei (Wang Jingwei)

Wang Ching-wei (Wang Jingwei), 1941.

UPI—Bettmann/Corbis

Liu Shaoqi

Liu Shaoqi

Liu Shaoqi.

Eastfoto

Nanjing Massacre memorial

Nanjing Massacre memorial

Nanjing Massacre memorial, Nanjing, Jiangsu province, China.

Yang Wu

Peng Dehuai

Peng Dehuai

Peng Dehuai, painting at the Historic Park of Geoje, POW Camp, in South Korea.

Kang Byeong Kee

Sino-Japanese War: Chiang Kai-shek and staff

Sino-Japanese War: Chiang Kai-shek and staff

Chiang Kai-shek meeting with his staff during the Sino-Japanese War (1937–45).

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Chen Yi

Chen Yi

Chen Yi, statue in Shanghai.

Shizhao

Zhou Enlai

Zhou Enlai

Zhou Enlai, a leading architect of China's foreign policy.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Jiang Qing and Mao Zedong

Jiang Qing and Mao Zedong

Jiang Qing and Mao Zedong, 1945.

Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (neg. no. LC-USZ62-126856)

Lin Biao

Lin Biao

Lin Biao holding a copy of the “Little Red Book,” Quotations from Chairman Mao,...

Eastfoto

Red Guards and Chinese revolutionary youth

Red Guards and Chinese revolutionary youth

Red Guards and Chinese revolutionary youth on march to Beijing, 1966.

Eastfoto

Zhou Enlai

Zhou Enlai

One of the principal architects of modern China, Zhou Enlai was instrumental in both...

Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group/Shutterstock.com

Shenzhen, China: skyscraper

Shenzhen, China: skyscraper

Skyscraper in Shenzhen, China.

© Polartern/Shutterstock.com

Hu Jintao

Hu Jintao

Chinese Pres. Hu Jintao, 2007.

EPA/REX/Shutterstock.com

Xi Jinping

Xi Jinping

Xi Jinping, 2017.

Lintao Zhang/Getty Images

Hong Kong: protest against detention of Liu Xiaobo

Hong Kong: protest against detention of Liu Xiaobo

Demonstrators in Hong Kong protesting the detention of dissident Liu Xiaobo, December...

Pedesbiz

60th anniversary celebration of the founding of the People's Republic of China

60th anniversary celebration of the founding of the People's Republic of China

Fireworks display in Tiananmen Square, Beijing, on October 1, 2009, during the observance...

Feng Li/Getty Images

demonstrators in Beijing, China, November 2022

demonstrators in Beijing, China, November 2022

Demonstrators holding up blank pieces of paper to avoid censorship as they protest...

Kevin Frayer/Getty Images

Hong Kong: celebrating the return to Chinese sovereignty in July 1997

Hong Kong: celebrating the return to Chinese sovereignty in July 1997

Fireworks marking the return of Hong Kong to Chinese sovereignty on July 1, 1997.

Ricky Chung—AFP/Getty Images

Great Wall of China

Great Wall of China

Tourists on a section of the Great Wall of China near Beijing.

© Marius Hetrea

Beijing city and municipality

Beijing city and municipality

Beijing city and municipality, China.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

China, c. 1902

China, c. 1902

Map of China and surrounding regions, from the 10th edition of the Encyclopædia...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Chinese numeral systems

Chinese numeral systems

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

China

China

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Audio

National anthem of China

The instrumental version of the national anthem of China.

Interactives

China: Ethnic composition

China: Ethnic composition

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

China: Religious affiliation

China: Religious affiliation

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

China: Urban-rural

China: Urban-rural

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

China: Age breakdown

China: Age breakdown

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

China: Breakdown of renewable energy by source

China: Breakdown of renewable energy by source

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

China: Major import sources

China: Major import sources

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

China: Major export destinations

China: Major export destinations

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

voyages of Zheng He

voyages of Zheng He

Voyages of Zheng He (1405–33).

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

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